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The 



Watchmakers' Lathe 



Its Use and Abuse 



A Study of the Lathe in Its Various Forms, Past and 
Present, Its Construction and Proper Uses* 
For the Student and Apprentice. 



BY WARD L. GOODRICH 



CHICAGO 

Hazlitt 8c Walker, Publishers 

1903 



LIBPae* ** ^OnGRFSS 

3 1904 

OODYTtght £nrrv 

&^«- f'.tqc% 

CLASS O^ KXo. H 
COPY B 



Copyrighted 

1902 

BY HAZLITT & TVAIKER. 






INTRODUCTION. 

The American lathe and its attachments is a subject so 
vast that anything like a complete work upon it would be 
sufficient material for a book larger by far, perhaps, than 
any workman not thoroughly acquainted with the subject 
would deem possible. In point of accuracy, variety of 
work, and ease and convenience of manipulation, the Amer- 
ican watchmakers' lathe, with its several attachments, stands 
supreme ; any piece of work, however delicate and intricate, 
may be executed upon it by an accomplished workman. 
But let us recall the various stages through which the lathe 
has passed before arriving at its present state of perfection, 
in order that those of to-day may the better appreciate the 
accuracy and convenience of the modern watchmakers' 
lathe, which stands alone in design and construction of this 
class of machinery, as it is the only one which has been 
evolved from the brains of skilled engineers, familiar with 
all the demands of automatic machinery, and who, having 
the whole range of modern mechanical attainments at their 
fingers' ends have devised a simple and effective machine 
which the skill and ingenuity of the American mechanic 
have made possible for any watchmaker, even of limited 
means, to possess. 

The present state of perfection in watches is dependent, 
to a very great extent, upon the accuracy of the tools pro- 



6 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

during them, the most important one being the lathe, in 
its various forms, not only because of the comparative ease 
and rapidity of performance, but also from the wide range 
of work and variety of operations which may be performed 
upon it. An American watchmakers' lathe, with a com- 
plete set of attachments, such as may be bought of the vari- 
ous manufacturers, is capable of producing a complete and 
perfect watch of the highest order, when manipulated by a 
skillful hand. » 

From an artistic point of view, many of the watches made 
by "the old masters" are most meritorious and worthy, 
when we consider the means at their command ; but as time- 
keeepers they would to-day be pronounced complete fail- 
ures, and while the work of these men, from a mechanical 
point, is all that could be expected of them at that time, yet 
their rude work, and still more rude tools, if applied to 
the fine watches of to-day, would be their death knell. 

In some localities, even now, the natural born watch- 
maker who can tinker a watch or clock "so it will go" is 
looked upon as a mechanical prodigy. The day of those 
watches which kept time with the sun is past and gone, 
never more to return. The modern business man demands 
a timepiece approaching very closely tcv perfection, and 
such fine and delicate machines in turn require for their 
repair tools of the highest possible accuracy and a skillful 
hand, such as is only acquired by long and tedious practice. 
Some workmen seem to think that all that is necessary to 
do good work is to get a set of tools, however cheap, and 
consequently worthless. There are very few persons who 
have achieved success except by persistent labor and study 
of their chosen vocation. 

In mechanics, as in all else, there is no such thing as per- 
fection, and the highest that man can attain with his best 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 7 

efforts is to approach the ideal perfection as closely as pos- 
sible. 

While the modern American watchmakers' lathe and its 
attachments will produce accurate work with more ease and 
certainty than can be done by the tools generally preva- 
lent in Europe, they cannot be used carelessly, but must 
be guided by a trained mind and skilled hand, and it is our 
desire to so explain these tools, their capabilities and the 
limitations to which they are subject, that the young man 
who enters the trade to-day may understand fully, what 
he may with justice require of his tools, and also what, in 
their turn, his tools will require of him, in order that they 
may receive that intelligent treatment, which is indispensa- 
ble to their accuracy and length of life. 

In order to understand fully the immense improvements 
to be found in common use to-day, let us glance at the 
origin and successive forms of this useful tool during the 
centuries it has been in use. 



CHAPTER I. 

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE LATHE. 

The lathe dates long before the Christian- era, and in 
one of its forms, the potters' lathe, is mentioned in the 
Bible. A well-known authority has stated that what he 
called the "prehistoric lathe" is undoubtedly the earliest 
type, but we are inclined to believe that the true home of 
the lathe is Egypt, and that the lathe used in that country 




Fig. 1. Prehistoric Lathe. 

and some parts of the far east to-day is not very dissimi- 
lar to those used before the advent of the Christian era. 
The so-called "prehistoric lathe" is illustrated very clearly 
in Fig. i. It will be observed that the bearings consist of 
the forks of the two trees, and that the tool-rest consists of 
a sapling driven into the ground. The piece to be turned 
is revolved by means of a crank fastened to one end. 

8 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



9 



Fig. 2 illustrates what is known as the Egyptian lathe, 
and the form, modified slightly in various cases, is used 
extensively throughout Egypt and the Asiatic countries 
to-day. The lathe shown in the illustration seems capable 
of turning work within certain limits only, and is not ad- 
justable; but the regular type is so made as to admit work 
of any length and any diameter. In the illustration it will 
be seen that the workman revolves the work by means of a 
bow with one hand, while with the other he holds the chisel 




Fig. 2. Egyptian Lathe. 

or cutting device, and his toes are used as a tool rest. In 
other varieties the turner drives two posts into- the ground, 
the proper distance apart, to receive the work, and the 
slot, being deeper, and a number of holes being provided 
for the reception of the stay-pins, articles of various lengths 
and diameters may be readily substituted. In India the 
turner carries his apparatus from house to house or place 
to place, and when his services are required he drives his 
uprights into the ground and is instantly ready for business. 
As a rule he does not use a bow, but wraps a cord around 
the work, and the boy who usually accompanies him takes 



io 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



one end of the cord in his right hand and the other in his 
left, and, by alternately pulling on the rope with each hand, 
he gives the piece the desired motion. 

It will be observed that in the prehistoric lathe a con- 
tinuous motion could be given to the work,, while in the 




Fig. 3. Early English Eathe. 

Egyptian pattern the motion is reciprocating or oscillating 
in its character. 

Fig. 3 illustrates a later or more advanced type, with 
reciprocating motion. The pressure of the foot in the 
stirrup produces a forward motion of the head stock of 
the lathe, and when the pressure is released the spring of 
the bent wood causes the head to revolve in the opposite 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. II 

direction. Crude as this lathe may appear, it may still be 
found in use, or at least could a few years ago, in 
some places in England. A certain case-maker in Eng- 
land has still several such lathes on his premises. The 
proprietor being asked why he did not equip the lathes with 
steam-power, which he had in his shop, replied : "These 
good fellows would not then know how to use them; their 
grandfathers and fathers before them worked on this kind 
of lathe, and to try and change them would only result in 
loss to us." 

The watchmaker's bow-lathe is exactly the same as the 
last two types mentioned, the only difference being in size. 
We are acquainted with several watchmakers, fine work- 
men, who still cling to the bow-lathe when they wish to 
do an exceptionally fine piece of work. They have, and 
understand pretty well, the use of the modern lathe, but 
such is the force of early education that they still believe 
that when accurate work is to be done the bow-lathe is the 
only thing to do it on. 

It seems strange that, with all the boasted progress made 
in the nineteenth century, there should be still left among 
us people, and even nations, that, so far as modern tools 
and appliances are concerned, seem to still belong to the 
eighteenth and even the seventeenth centuries — people who, 
through prejudice or want of education, or something in- 
explicable, still prefer to use the turns or implements of a 
like nature rather than the modern American lathe for 
watchmakers, with its substantial base, its live spindle and 
its excellent slide-rest and adjuncts. 

When we say this we do not wish to be construed as 
criticising the workmanship on the part of watchmakers 
of other nations, nor do we mean to say that the average 
American watchmaker is the superior or even the peer 



12 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



oi the European. We have our full share of botches. We 
admire the workmanship of the European watchmaker, 
which, as a rule, is excellent, but we only regret that the 
men who have so much inherent genius should continue to 
employ methods so out of all keeping with their evident 
talents and skill. 

The earliest form of lathe used by the watchmaking 
fraternity was undoubtedly what is known as the dead- 




Fig. 4. Fiddlc-Bow Lathe. 

center. These lathes are known as "fiddle-bow lathes," 
because motion was imparted to them by means of a bow- 
made of steel, wood, whalebone or other substances, and 
having a cord of catgut string, and they resembled the bow 
used by performers on the fiddle or violin. 

Fig. 4 illustrates a watchmaker of the eighteenth century 
at work upon a lathe of this type. It is a portrait of A. L. 
Perelet, a noted French watchmaker, working at the bench 
at the advanced age of ninety-three years. In the dead- 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



r 3 



center lathe the object to be operated upon was held be- 
tween two male or female centers which did not revolve, 
and were known as dead centers. While the dead-center 
type of lathe is not to be compared with the live spindle 
in point of utility, yet it possessed, no matter how poorly 
made, one vital point which many modern live spindle lathes 
do not possess — the element of truth ; and unless the op- 
erator was a bungler, this point could never be eliminated. 
As stated above, this form of lathe still has its admirers 




Fig. 5. Steel Turns. 

among artisans who readily recognize the great capacity 
of the American lathe for the greater part of all watch re- 
pairing. With all its good points in regard to truth, the 
dead spindle lathe was relegated to the background in 
America when the live-spindle form made its appearance, 
for it was only possible to perform operations upon the 
surface of objects held in it; and again, the object had, 
under all conditions, to be first centered before the work 
began, and here half the true value of the lathe was lost 
owing to the great loss of time in this preliminary operation. 
It was impossible, except in a few cases, to work upon the 
inside of an article, and when the live spindle made its 
appearance the American watchmaker readily recognized its 
superiority in this regard. 

The verge lathe, the turns, the Jacot tool, and the cen- 



14 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

tering and drilling tool, are all examples of the dead- 
center lathe. Fig. 5 illustrates the steel turns as used by 
many English, French and German watchmakers to-day. 
The Jacot tool is illustrated in Fig. 6, and it, too, is exten- 
sively used in the above named countries. The earliest form 
of live-spindle lathe was known as the Swiss lathe. This 
lathe, although of the live-spindle type, had a solid and not 
a hollow spindle, and although an excellent tool in its day, 
it, too, had to succumb to the advancement of science in 



Fig. 6. The Jacot Lathe. 

machine building. In one of the forms of this lathe it 
was so made that the front bearing for the arbor could 
be made to swing back on a joint, and the workman was 
thus enabled to take the arbor out with the least amount 
of trouble without removing the work which had been 
cemented upon the spindle, and substitute another spindle, 
if work upon the other had to be temporarily interrupted. 
It was, however, very weak and shaky, and under a heavy 
cut would be liable to tremble. The lathe had a clumsy T- 
rest which was held on the bar, that answered for a bed 
for the lathe in such a manner that the center of the T-rest 
could not be passed beyond the center of the lathe. The 
slide-rest which accompanied it was as much too small as 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



l 5 



the T-rest was too large, and it was absolutely valueless to 
the watchmaker. 

Our remarks above were applied to the Swiss bench 
lathe and this type should not be confounded with the Swiss 
universal lathe, for in its day, and for the purpose intended, 
it was a very superior tool. It had a face plate which usual- 
ly not only ran true, but presented a perfect plane at right 
angles to the arbor of the lathe. While the slide rest could 
not be compared to those used on modern American lathes 
of to-day, yet it was vastly superior to the ones that accom- 




Fig. 7. Swiss Universal Lathe. 



panied the Swiss bench lathe. L Fig. 7 illustrates a form 
of Swiss universal lathe or mandrel which is still to be 
found on the English, French and German markets and 
which still retain the faults of the original lathes of nearly 
fifty years ago. It will be noted that while the universal 
head is strong and massive, the square bed on which all the 
resistance comes is weak and does not present surface 
enough to give a good, solid foundation to the slide rest. 

Again the tool is limited in its application to watch- 
makers' work as the face plate is stationary on its arbor 
and cannot be removed and chucks substituted. Even when 
using it to face off work you cannot get at the work to the 



i6 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



extreme edge, as the clamps prevent this. The watchmaker 
who buys such a machine has at his command a special tool 
which can only be used for a limited range of work. Again 
it is a hand tool and the right hand is constantly employed 
in turning the handle, leaving only the left hand to work 
with, and the modern watchmaker finds that very often two 
hands are not enough for some classes of work. 




Fig. 8. The Dracip Lathe. 



Next in order comes the Bottom lathe, which is doubt- 
less still remembered by the older members of the craft. 
While this tool was considered a great improvement on 
the lathes on the market before it, being well made and sub- 
stantial, yet it, too, faded from view, like snow before a 
summer sun, when the hollow spindle lathe put in its ap- 
pearance. 

As an example of the tools and methods that are out 
of date, let us call the attention of the reader to the Dra- 
cip lathe, which is a very popular tool among English watch- 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



n 



makers to-day and one which a modern English writer of 
horological literature extols in the highest terms. Fig. 8 
illustrates this lathe ready for work. Like the turns, it is 
held in the vise, but, unlike it, motion is imparted to the 
work by means of a hand wheel and catgut cord. The right 
hand runner is precisely the same as used in the turns but 
the left hand one is pierced through its entire length to re- 
ceive runners of less diameter. The inner spindle is a dead one 
and on its outer end runs a loose pulley from the face of 
which project two driving pins. This pulley is revolved by 




Fig. 9. Dracip Lathe Ready for Drilling. 

means of a cord. Now as this loose pulley is rotated, it also 
rotates the smaller runner by means of the pin, which, stick- 
ing out of the body of the latter, projects between the two 
driving pins and this runner imparts motion to the work by 
means of the dog and driving pin on the other end, the 
dog being fastened to the work. Does the reader wonder 
that we cry out for reform and urge modern methods after 
this ? The dog and the pin on the inner end of the runner 
may be seen in Fig. 8, while the two driving pins and the 
runner pin are more clearly shown in Fig. 9, which shows 
the lathe ready for drilling. Fig. 10 shows the lathe in 
position for drilling a pinion by means of a rotating drill, 
this pinion remaining stationary, and it also shows the rea- 



l8 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

son for leaving the central slot in the base with its binding 
screw. The operator selects a suitable cone on the plate 
held in the T rest holder and centering it from the back 
he fixes the pinion in its place. The pin which runs from 
the left hand runner through the wheel is used to prevent 
the work from rotating while being drilled. He now inserts 
the drill in the tube and presses against the pinion by means 
of the rotating thumb-piece at the left. We believe this 
short description will be sufficient to convey an adequate 
idea of the Dracip lathe. 




Fig. 10. Dracip Lathe Ready to Drill Pinion. 

Mr. Charles S. Moseley, inventor of the split-chuck, 
as used to-day, originated that useful device in 1857 or 
1858, to be used upon a solid spindle lathe by substituting 
a hollow lathe spindle and using a solid rod as the draw-in 
spindle. These lathes were used in the old Boston Watch 
Company's factory at Roxbury, Mass., at the time Mr, 
Moseley was in their employ. Prior to the time of his 
invention of the split-chuck, wax was used to hold the 
work in place. Mr. Moseley bored and tapped the end 
of the solid draw-in spindle for the reception of the chuck, 
but soon found that this was very unsatisfactory, and he 
set to work to devise some better form of lathe. The re- 
sult of his patient toil and thought was the hollow live 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 19 

spindle lathe, with a taper mouth and draw-in spindle, prac- 
tically as used by American watchmakers to-day. The 
watchmaking fraternity should be very grateful to Mr. 
Moseley for his contribution to watchmaking machinery, 
and yet so modest is he that no man has ever heard him 
boast of his achievements in this line, although this is 
but one of many of his inventions, all of which were pat- 
entable and none of which were ever patented and hence 
the low price at which lathes and attachments of various 
kinds may now be purchased. But to return to our subject. 

In 1859, Charles S. Moseley designed for use in the 
factory of the American Watch Company a small lathe 
which he conceived would be a useful tool to the watch 
repairer, and which is the type of all the American watch- 
makers' lathes. It consists of a round bed secured to a 
round pedestal by a bolt, the same bolt passing through, and 
securing the lathe to the bench, headstock and tailstock se- 
cured to the bed by screws and nuts, and the headstock tak- 
ing the split wire chuck. 

This lathe only differed from the regular factory lathe 
by the manner of making the bed and pedestal. One of 
these lathes was made in the buildings of the American 
Watch Company, and shown in this country and in Eng- 
land, and then the subject was allowed to lapse, owing to 
Mr. Moseley becoming connected with the Nashua Watch 
Company. 

While, as before stated, Mr. Moseley's hollow spindle 
lathe was practically the same as the lathe on the market 
to-day, yet there were a few points of minor difference, as 
the shape of the bed, the angles employed, the bearings, etc., 
and for this reason a diagram of his original lathe may not 
be devoid of all interest at this point. Fig. n illustrates 
the bed of the lathe, Fig. 12 the draw-in spindle, Fig. 13 



20 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



the chuck and Fig. 14 the hollow spindle. It will be noted 
that this was not a center guide lathe, although the Moseley 
Lathe Company now employ that form. It will also be 
noted that the bed was flat on the under side instead of 
circular as now made. The dotted lines AA in Fig. 14 rep- 
resent the interior of the arbor; BB the journal bushings. 
In 1859, owing to dullness of times, A. Webster, then 
in charge of the machine shop of the American Watch Com- 
pany, received orders from Mr. Robbins to reduce the force 
of machinists. Mr. Webster suggested to Mr. Robbins 




Sectional View Original Moseley Lathe. 

that a business might be built up of building lathes for 
watch repairers, and received permission to design such a 
lathe, and taking the features of the Moseley lathe, chang- 
ing the proportions and enlarging it, he designed a lathe, 
to which he added the universal head and the slide rest. A 
number of these lathes were started, but before completion 
business revived, so that the full force of machinists were 
again put upon the factory machinery, and only two of the 
lathes were sold, the others being put into use in the fac- 
tory. 

Two of the watch company's machinists — Messrs. Kid- 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



21 



der and Adams— seeing the work stopped, concluded that it 
might be a business in which they might safely embark, and 
they left the factory, started a shop at Stony Brook and, 
taking the design of Mr. Webster, brought out a lathe, but 
before many had been sold, the business changed hands 
several times, until it was finally purchased in 1862 by John 
Stark, who for a number of years manufactured the lathe. 
Fig. 15 illustrates one of the earliest lathes placed on the 




ecAtsia <t */c*su?Gsb'V-s>/*0r0-#c ■ 



Fig. 15. Earliest Form of Commercial Lathe. 

market, with universal head and jeweling caliper in posi- 
tion. The head stock is extremely weak compared with 
lathes of to-day. 

In 1862 great improvements had been made in the de- 
tails of manufacture of lathes for factory use, by the intro- 
duction of hardened spindles' and bearings, and the design- 
ing of grinding attachments for the purpose of doing that 
work, and John E. Whitcomb, thinking that these improved 
lathes would find a ready sale, left the watch factory and 
started in business in Boston with George F. Ballou, under 



22 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

the firm name of Ballou, Whitcomb & Co. About the same 
time Mr. Moseley designed another lathe, and started in 
the manufacture of the Moseley lathe in Elgin, and for a 
long time the Whitcomb, the Moseley and the Stark lathes 
were the only accurately made lathes in the country. In 
1876 Mr. Webster connected himself with Mr. Whitcomb, 
forming the American Watch Tool Co. 

In the meantime the Hopkins Watch Tool Company, the 
Mansfield Watch Tool Company, and the Ohio Watch Tool 
Company, and two or three other parties in Chicago brought 
out lathes of various qualities. 

In 1889 Mr. Webster designed a lathe known as the Web- 
ster-Whitcomb, which shows a decided improvement over 
the one designed by him some thirty years previous. In 
the designing of this lathe, Mr. Webster brought the ex- 
perience of thirty-three years in watch factory work, and 
in watch tool making. In this lathe the proper proportions 
of the spindle, its size, length, thickness and shape, received 
the most careful attention. The proportion of the bearings, 
the relative sizes of the chucks and the spindles, the form 
of the tailstock, and a hundred things that tend to make 
perfection in a lathe, were looked after with great care. The 
spindle should not be long enough to spring; it should be 
thick enough to retain its form under the strain that is put 
upon it, but not so heavy as to make its diameter excessive, 
and it should run with a minimum amount of friction, i. e., 
there should not be a hard and an easy place in its revolu- 
tion. 

The length and thickness of the chucks must be such 
as to give the best possible results, and they should be 
absolutely true. The threads should be smoothly cut, and 
the chucks should fit perfectly in the headstock. 

While this chapter on the history of the lathe may be 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 23 

devoid of value from a practical standpoint, yet we feel 
that the modern watchmaker should know something of 
the evolution of the little machine which occupies the left 
hand side of his bench and it may have a tendency to instill 
into him a more wholesome regard for that most useful 
machine and make him thankful for the devices which the 
patient application and deep thought of generations of 
watchmakers have brought forth for his benefit. 



-4 



THE AMERICAN" LATHE. 




CHAPTER II. 

THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE WATCHMAKER'S LATHE. 

Perhaps it may be well, in approaching our study of the 
American Lathe, to state concisely just what its points of 
merit are and in just what particulars it has, or claims to 
have, the advantage over the Swiss or Geneva lathe; and 
also in what respects some of the foreign imitations fail of 
equal attainments with the genuine. To anyone who has had 
experience with both, such a statement would be unneces- 
sary ; but as this is not written for such people, and as nearly 
everyone writing on the subject has contented himself with 
general expressions of praise for one and contempt for the 
other, it may be well to set them forth clearly for the benefit 
of the novice. 

In the manufacture of lathes, the vital points are that the 
spindles of head and tail stocks shall be true, exactly in line 
with each other at all points of the lathe bed, wherever they 
may be placed, and that the parts bearing the strains shall 
be so proportioned mathematically that they will withstand 
working strains, without springing. 

If we go into a machine shop and look at a machinist's, or 
engine lathe, we shall find a long bed of cast iron with the 
sides shaped like an I-beam, fastened at the ends and at in- 
tervals between them by webs of iron, to prevent the sides 
from springing. The whole construction exhibits careful 
thought to arrange the metal so as to best withstand the 
strains by having the greatest thickness of metal in the same 
direction as the greatest strain. For this reason the greatest 
thickness of metal is in a vertical direction; the flanges of 
the I-beam are wide and fully as thick as the wall of the I ; 

25 



z6 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



the angles where the wall and flange join are rounded, not, 
as so many suppose, to make a nice looking job, but in order 
to get more metal at that point and so provide against lateral 
as well as vertical strains. On the top of the upper flange 
are two projecting, inverted V-grooves, the inner one form- 
ing the guide for preserving the alignment of the head and 
tail stocks and the outer performing a like service for the 
slide rest. They are inverted so as to form a projection 
instead of a hole, because chips, dirt, etc., would soon fill the 




Fig. 17. Sectional View of Engine Tathe. 

hole and necessitate cleaning whenever the head or tail 
stock had to be moved. The top edges of the V are cham- 
fered off, so that tools, etc., falling on them will not bruise 
them and destroy their accuracy. You will notice in the 
accompanying sectional view T of the head, Fig. 17, that the 
point forming the center of the spindle is marked A and the 
guides for the head and tail stocks B and C. Now our 
strains are so distributed that when work is done at A the 
strains will fall within the dotted triangle A, B, C, and the 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



2 7 



wider the base B, C of the triangle becomes in proportion 
to its height, the stronger the lathe will be, if the proper pro- 
portions of metal are placed in it. You can see at a glance 
that A, B, C, Fig. 18, is stronger than D, E, F, with the same 
pressure applied at A and at D. 

If we add a slide rest and carry it upon the outer grooves 




Fig. 1°. Comparative Strength of Wide and Narrow Triangles. 

b and c, Fig. 17, we then have our triangle of forces as A, 
b, c, in which the base b, c, is still wider; and this is cor- 
rect, because we take heavier cuts with the slide rest than 
we do when turning by hand, and consequently more force 
is exerted. 




Fig. 19. English Mandrel. 

Now that we understand the triangle of forces, let us ex- 
amine the watchmakers' lathes. In the old type of lathe, 
called the mandrel, shown at Fig. 19, we have the earliest and 



28 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

worst form of bed, namely a rectangular bar, with square 
corners, and its narrowest dimensions forming the base of 
the triangle of support. In addition to this the necks of the 
head and tail stocks were cut away so much that not enough 
metal was left to form a rigid support for the spindles. The 
bed was square and the holes in the tail stock, slide rest and 
hand rest shoes had also to be squared to fit it. Anyone 
who has ever tried fitting square holes will easily see that 
the difficulties of fitting made uniformity of production of 
these lathes impossible and this, with the defects mentioned 
above, caused it to be superseded by the Swiss form of lathe, 
shown in Fig. 20. This was so much better adapted to uni- 
fomity of manufacture that it soon drove the other prac- 
tically out of the market, although it had a solid spindle and 
the only way of working was by means of wax chucks and 
lathe dogs, such as the machinist uses today to revolve some 
kinds of work. 

Then the Americans invented the split chuck, which neces- 
sitated a hollow spindle in the head stock ; in order that the 
chuck might be fastened by screwing a rod on the end of the 
chuck with a collar on the rod, which bore against the rear 
end of the spindle and thus held the chuck in place. This was 
a great improvement, but it halted for some time, until 
the hollow draw-in spindle was substituted for the solid 
rod, when the two secured almost immediate adoption in 
America, owing to the facility with which material could 
be inserted through the hollow spindle and a large part of 
the work done before cutting the work off the rod; but 
the Europeans refused almost solidly to accept it. The 
trouble was that European manufacturers were still of the 
notion that it required delicate machinery to do delicate 
work and they made their head stock spindles too thin 
in the wall of the tube, so that they sprung in the bear- 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



2 5 




30 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

ings and also sprung at the mouthy or chuck seat of the 
spindle, whenever the chuck was drawn down too tightly. 
Under these circumstances truth of revolution is impos- 
sible and even today there are many European watchmakers 
who cling to the old dead centers, lathe dogs and ^vvax 
chucks, firmly believing that these are the only methods 
by which truth and accuracy can be secured. In the, United 
States there are also many good watchmakers who are will- 
ing to use the draw-in spindle lathe for ordinary work, but 
still use cement chucks for all fine work, but they are be- 
coming fewer in number as the vital points of the Amer- 
ican lathe are becoming better understood in the trade. 

The Swiss and German manufacturers of lathes were 
quick to adopt the hollow draw-in spindle and split chuck 
for the lathes exported to America, but did not change their 
patterns in other respects, and this brings us to a considera- 
tion of the respective forms of construction of the two 
lathes. In Figs. 16, 21 and 22 we have side, sectional and 
end views of the American lathe, and in Figs. 20 and 23 side 
and end views of the Geneva pattern. Both end views are 
one-half size of the actual lathes. The American lathe has 
a wider bed, with beveled edges to form the guides for 
head and tail stocks and a wide base for the triangle of 
forces, as explained at length in regard to the machinist's 
lathe. The Geneva lathe has a much narrower, round bed, 
which is cut away at the back to form the guides for head 
and tail stocks and thus still further reduces dimensions 
that were insufficient in the beginning. In the American 
pattern much more metal is evident; the surfaces coming 
in contact are all planes, and so arranged as to be accu- 
rately produced in large numbers. In the Geneva pattern 
the base of the triangle is altogether too narrow ; the guides 
are close together, instead of being widely separated as in 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



3 1 




3 2 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



the American; the curved interiors of the lower portions 
of the head and tail stocks are purposely made so that they 
will spring to fit the curvature of the bed and the total 
effect is that we have still the narrow base of the triangle 
as exhibited in the old mandrel, Fig. 19, and which years 
ago was discarded as insufficient. 

When we consider how much of our work must neces- 
sarily be done outside of the straight lines inclosing the 
triangle of forces, it will readily be seen how immensely 
superior is the American form of lathe, conforming, as it 
does, so closely with the mathematical requirements of this 
class of machinery. 

In the Geneva pattern (see Fig. 20 and Fig. 23) the head 
stock, tail stock and slide rest shoes are bored out to fit 
the bed, and then faced off to suit the guides and a flat 
clamp added. In the American pattern the castings are 
simply clamped bottom up and milled before being bored 
for the spindles, so that any mechanic can see the greater 
chance for accuracy of fitting that must be reckoned in 
io,oooths of an inch. 

These considerations have led to the gradual discards 
ing of the Geneva pattern of lathe in America. In investi- 
gating this question, the writer found that only the largest 
tool and material dealers now keep the Geneva form of 
lathe; a visit to eight dealers disclosed the fact that only 
two of them had any Geneva lathes on hand and they were 
on shelves in the original packages, while a full line of the 
American patterns, of both American and foreign manu- 
facture, was displayed in the show cases. 

Of more importance than either the form of lathe, or the 
truth of alignment of guides and spindles, is the shape, size 
and proportions of the head spindle. In fact, the whole 
truth or falsity of the lathe is there, for nine-tenths of the 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



33 




Fig. 22. Section of American Lathe in Front of Headstock 
One-Half Size. 




Fig. 23. Section of Geneva Lathe in Front of Headstock 
One-Half Size. 



34 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

watchmaker's work. By far the largest part of his work 
is done with tail stock, slide rest and all other attachments 
removed from the lathe, leaving only the hand rest, head 
stock and chuck to be considered. The hand rest does not 
move and only requires to be held rigidly where it is placed. 
The head stock is also motionless, so that only the spindle 
and chuck have really to be considered. 

Fig. 21 shows a longitudinal section of the American lathe 
and Fig. 24 shows a full-sized section of the head stock, in 
which we can see the head stock, front and rear bearings, 
their means of adjustment, method of oiling, dust caps, the 
head stock spindle, the cone pulley, the draw-in spindle and 
the chuck. 

We will consider first the shape and size of the lathe 
spindle bearings. The front bearing is a cone, neatly, fitted 
in the head stock and having a three-degree taper on its 
inner surface, to which the front spindle bearing is also 
ground. This bearing is tapered forty-five degrees in front 
to form the thrust shoulder, which receives the end thrust 
of the spindle whenever pressure is applied on the work in 
line with the spindle, as in turning a wheel, or the barrel 
of a watch, shoulders of pivots, etc. Its shape is such as 
to keep the spindle central under end pressure, which it 
might not do if the bearing were parallel and the shoulder 
straight. 

The rear bearing is fitted in the head stock in the reverse 
direction, and has a similar shape; mounted on the rear of 
the spindle is the rear spindle bearing, shaped like that of 
the front spindle, but adapted to slide on the spindle and 
be held in place by a check nut. It will be seen that by 
having taper bearings mounted in opposite directions means 
of adjustment for wear are provided, in order that the 
spindle may be delicately adjusted, so as to be without per- 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



35 




Fig. 24. Longitudinal Section of Head Stock of American Lathe. 
Full Size. 



36 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

ceptible side or end shake and having the least possible fric- 
tion. These bearings are of gun metal, or of fine grained 
cast iron, hardened, ground and polished. 

Now we come to the spindle itself. This is a piece of 
the finest tool steel, bored out, and reamed to size, so as to 
get a true hole; then turned on hardened and polished 
dead centers in a true lathe, so as to have the central hole 
concentric with the spindle ; then the spindle is hardened 
and tempered, and finally again mounted on centers and 
ground to accurate size and shape. In this process special 
attention must be paid to the fitting of the centers, or the 
central hole will not be concentric. All spindles spring 
more or less when hardening and if a badly sprung spindle 
is ground up true, its walls will be so thin that it will spring 
in the head stock if the pulley fits loosely, if the draw-in 
spindle is tightened too much (as very powerful pressure 
is put on both ends of the spindle by screwing up the draw- 
in spindle and chuck too tight, so that the head stock 
spindle, being held at both ends, must buckle in the center), 
or if too much pressure is applied when turning with the 
face plate. Many watchmakers have seen lathes where 
the spindle would run true with a solid chuck, but would 
not do so with a piece of work in a split chuck ; or the work- 
would be true when held in an open split chuck, but would 
be out when the chuck was closed. Of course they blamed 
the split chuck, when it might have been the spindle. Both 
chucks and spindle must be true; an untrue chuck and true 
spindle or vice versa will not do. 

In this connection I am reminded of a controversy which 
arose between a manufacturer of chucks who claimed ab- 
solute truth for his product and a prominent and skilled 
watchmaker, who had always maintained that perfect ac- 
curacy could only be had by cementing. The controversy 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 37 

got into the trade press and was carried on with consider- 
able heat on both sides. Finally the manufacturer agreed 
to prove his assertions by supplying the watchmaker with 
a full set of split chucks, to be paid for if true and to be 
given, if fault could be found with them. The only con- 
dition was that the lathe head stock was to be furnished 
him, so that the chucks might be properly fitted, which was 
done. It was discovered at the factory that the spindle was 
too light and would spring; so they made a new spindle 
with thicker walls, without telling him about it. A week 
later he paid for the chucks and announced in the papers 

that 's chucks were perfection. He never knew that 

they had given him a new spindle. 

After grinding to truth outside, the best manufacturers 
fit the spindle carefully in its bearings in the head stock 
and then grind out the chuck seat with care. This makes 
a perfect job, as the chuck seat is bound to be central with 
the spindle bearings, if ground in its own head stock. 

In many of the foreign-made lathes of American pattern 
(which are made to sell at a low price) the greatest econ- 
omy must necessarily be practiced. They cannot afford to 
throw away spindles that have sprung in tempering. Only 
the bearings are ground, leaving the pulley seat untrue. 
The chuck seat is often not central and the blackened sur- 
face shows that it has not been ground out at all. In some 
cases a chuck will go in too far and in the next lathe not 
far enough, showing that the seat is either not the proper 
size or not round. Now these are differences too small for 
the novice to detect and consequently they pass the buyer, 
who is looking mostly at the price, and are only found out 
when a capable workman commences to find fault with the 
lathe, gets out his testing instruments and proceeds to es- 
tablish the falsity of either chuck or spindle ; he don't know 
which. 



38 THE AMERICAN LATHH. 

A nameless "imitation" lathe may or may not have these 
faults. The trouble is that such a lathe was bought on 
account of its price 2 and importer, dealer and manufacturer 
all have a tacit understanding that it shall be just good 
enough to pass. This is the reason that the maker does not 
put his name on it. The nameless lathe is, therefore, when 
it gets to America, a sort of orphan. No one is responsible 
for it. Its maker is unknown ; very likely it was assembled 
from a dozen or more makers of parts — a favorite method 
of manufacture in Europe. In this case, if it were to be 
returned to its manufacturer, there is still a division of re- 
sponsibility and uncertainty as to who was at fault. There- 
fore, when the dealer gets such a lathe returned to him, 
he either sends it to a manufacturer in this country to be 
trued up, or he intimates that the watchmaker has sprung 
it himself, since it has been in his possession, and endeavors 
to charge him for all or a portion of the expense incurred 
in making it true. 

The American and reputable European manufacturers 
stamp their names on their products and thereby guarantee 
their truth. If fault is found, the lathe is returned to the 
manufacturer to be corrected at his expense, whereas, nc 
one is responsible for the nameless product. Try to get a 
guarantee from your dealer when buying a nameless lathe 
and see how quickly he will drop it and try to sell you one 
that has the maker's name stamped on it. 

It is generally stated that an imported lathe will fit the 
American chucks, but many of them will not do so for the 
following reasons: The chuck should fit into the head 
spindle w4thin one thirty-second of an inch of its largest 
diameter, as shown in Fig. 25, but many of them will not do 
so. They may even project as far as shown in Fig. 26. In 
this case the chuck seat is too small and must be ground 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



39 



out, so that the chucks will fit properly into their seat as 
shown in the previous figure. Sometimes the chucks ap- 
pear to fit the seat in the spindle properly, but will not 
enter the thread in the draw-in spindle, or do so with dif- 




Fig. 25. Enlarged View of Eathe Spindle, showing Chuck Properly 
Seated. Compare with Fig. 26. 




Fig. 26. Enlarged View of Eathe Spindle, showing Chuck Seat too 
Small. Compare with Fig. 25. 

Acuity. The reason is that many of the European makers 
use a thread that is rounded at the top and bottom as in 
Fig. 2j y while the Americans use a sharp V-thread as 
shown in Fig. 28. Of course the draw-in spindle must be 
tapped out, so that room may be provided for the sharp 
corners of the thread on the American chucks, before they 
will fit properly. This should always be done, when this 



4° 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



defect is found, as it has an important influence on the 
seating of the chuck in delicate work, or where extreme 
accuracy is required. If this is not done the threads on all 



MM/lwlK. 



www 



Fig. 27. Enlarged View of Chuck End, showing Round Thread 
Used by European Manufacturers. 



rlYMvlYtA 



WJAiW 



Fig. 28. Enlarged View of Chuck End, showing Sharp V Thread, 
Used by American Manufacturers. 

your American chucks will be bruised, or your draw-in 
spindle will be stretched, if it is soft enough, and then the 
European chucks, which came with the lathe, will be loose 
in the threads and their accuracy will be affected. 

If the lathe spindle has not been ground out after hard- 
ening, it may have sprung out of round in hardening and 
have come to you in that condition; then the jaw of the 



THE AMERICAN LATHE* 4I 

chuck which comes opposite the flattened side of the chuck 
seat in the spindle will meet the seat sooner than the others 
when the draw-in spindle is tightened, and will consequent- 
ly be pushed past the center before it meets the remain- 
ing jaws of the chuck. In such a case a true chuck would 
work exactly central when loosely inserted, but it would 
throw the work out of center when tightened. In such a 
case there is. always doubt as to whether it is this spindle 
or the chuck that is at fault, and the blame is generally laid 
to the chuck, unless it is found to be true in other lathes 
The chuck seat of the spindle should be tested for truth in 
the round, with a testing lever. Even then, if the spindle 
be too light, it will be true at rest and spring when tight- 
ened, as previously described. The spindles and bearings 
should be ground true. The fact that there are two angles 
on the cones (generally three degrees and 45 degrees) to 
be fitted together, requires a nicety of workmanship few 
watchmakers appreciate; and it has the disadvantage of 
enabling some manufacturers to p^lm off on their custom- 
ers a very inferior article, which, to the unpracticed eye 
looks all right, but is in reality, far from it. There are 
thousands of lathes in use that have the spindles bearing 
entirely on the 45-degree tapers, while the proper bear- 
ing is on the three-degree. The only function of the 45- 
degree angle is to prevent end-thrust on the spindle from 
binding or sticking the spindle in the three-degree or long 
bearing. When the spindle bears on the 45-degree angles 
only it is really running on a pair of very abrupt cones and 
the lathe will always run hard, sometimes stick, never run 
true or stay true, and never give satisfaction to its owner. 
This vital defect is particularly true of the imported, or 
imitation lathes. Some of our domestic lathes are also 
faulty in this respect, and when this is true, che 6est things 



_j2 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

about the lathe are the nickel and polish. It looks as pretty 
as any of them. 

This fault can be easily discovered, if it exists. Remove 
the spindle ; clean it thoroughly ; replace it in the front 
bearing; remove the rear sleeve and cone bearing; press 
firmly on the front end of the spindle with the right hand ; 
then take hold of the rear end of the spindle and try to 
shake it. If it does not feel as solid and firm as when the 
rear bearing was in place, the spindle was never right and 
never will be until reground by a competent workman, and 
the lathe will never give satisfaction to the user until it is 
reground. 

The most valuable appliance a watchmaker can have on 
his bench is a good American lathe. This involves a live 
spindle hardened on both ends, ground true, inside and 
out, and properly proportioned to prevent springing, as de- 
tailed at length in what has just been said. The rear end 
of the spindle should be hardened, to prevent the dry draw- 
in spindle from injury and from scarring the back end of 
the live spindle, as it often does when they are both soft. 

The draw-in spindle should be of soft steel, case hard- 
ened at both ends, at the front end to prevent wear of 
thread, where it engages the thread on the chucks, and at 
the other to prevent seizing and sticking in the bearing and 
shoulder of the live spindle. 

The spindle should run in hardened steel, or hardened 
cast iron bearings. The babbitt, brass and gun metal bear- 
ings used in the "soft" lathes are a thing of the past and 
never had anything to recommend them but cheapness. The 
"soft" lathe had a spindle which was not hardened and 
ran in brass boxes. The "half hard," used a hardened 
spindle with soft boxes. Both have been displaced in Amer- 
ican practice by the "full hard" lathe — hardened steel 



THB AMERICAN LATHE. 43 

spindles, hardened draw-in spindle and hardened bearings. 
Even these terms are now obsolete in the trade and the "full 
hard" lathe is always understood when an American lathe 
is spoken of. Soft lathes are still imported, however, as 
they are much cheaper to make and the buyer of cheap im- 
ported lathes is very apt to get one if he is not on the look- 
out. 

These remarks should be sufficient to show the impor- 
tance of that hidden piece of machinery, the lathe spindle, 
and why it is wise to buy only guaranteed lathes, stamped 
with the name of the maker, as it is a difficult proposition 
to prove the untruth of a thin spindle and a sprung spindle, 
or one with improper chuck seat, while easier to detect, 
always causes an annoying delay, while it is sent to a factory 
to be corrected. 

The sizes of lathes have undergone a gradual evolu- 
tion. The principal manufacturers originally made three 
sizes of lathes, the smallest of which had a chuck of .24-in. 
diameter. The next size was .31-in. diameter. The dis- 
tance from bed to center of the small size was 1% inches, 
and of the next size 2 inches. Only these tw r o sizes were 
sold to repairers, the larger sizes being designed for manu- 
facturers and tool makers. The test of long-continued use 
led to the gradual discarding of the smallest size, prin- 
cipally on account of the weakness and small capacity of the 
chucks, and this feature will be taken up in full under 
the subject of chucks. The height of the chuck from the 
bed and other dimensions of the smallest sized lathe made it 
a favorite among repairers, however, and this difficulty was 
met by bringing out, some years later, a lathe retaining the 
outside dimensions and "swing" of the small lathe, but 
having a spindle that would take a chuck .31-in. in diam- 
eter. Moseley was, we believe, the first to do this and he 
called the new size 1x2; that is, the No. 2 size chuck and 



44 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

the other dimensions of the No. I lathe. The American 
Watch Tool Co. quickly made similar changes in their 
Whitcomb lathe and called it Webster- Whitcomb. Others 
quickly fell into line^ and the incident is of importance as 
showing the dimensions which have stood the test of time. 
There is now a marked movement towards the No. 2, which 
has four inches swing, a longer and larger chuck and heav- 
ier dimensions throughout. The larger head gives more 
room to swing large pieces. The chucks have a larger ca- 
pacity for occasional jobs and many men with large hands 
have found difficulty in working at the small lathe; hence 
the growing tendency to larger sizes. American manufac- 
turers generally have discontinued making the lathe taking 
the small chuck. 

Fig. 29 shows the construction of the head stock and 
spindle of the Rivett lathe. This lathe has the usual front 
bearing of three and forty-five degrees with a parallel bear- 
ing in the rear which is adjusted by a compression sleeve 
and screw in the tapered rear seat in the head stock and a 
flat collar between the head stock and pulley which is ad- 
justed by a thread on the spindle and set by a locking screw 
in the collar. It makes a very good bearing for the pur- 
pose for which it is used and the iron sleeve on which the 
hard rubber pulley is carried extends from the front bear- 
ing to the rear adjusting collar and thus tends to re-enforce 
the spindle and prevent springing in the middle when the 
draw-in spindle and chuck are strained tighter than they 
should be. 

Fig. 30 illustrates a spindle designed and made by Hard- 
inge Bros., Chicago, and which they consider as nearly per- 
fect. They have had it in use for several years, and have 
studied it carefully, with a view of discovering any faults 
which might exist, but still consider it as nearly perfect as 
it is possible for them to design a spindle. 



THE AMERICAN I-ATHE. 



45 







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THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



It has but 3 degrees at front bearing A and E is a hollow 
space. This space is left to collect all fine material which 
may work in between the spindle and dust band F and pre- 
serve the bearing from being injured by the dirt. G is a 
space, or ring, turned out in the head, which is a reservoir 
for oil, and is kept full ; if the bearing heats it expands this 
ring of oil, which naturally runs into the hole on the top of 




Fig. 30. Section of Hardin ge Spindle, with Pulley for Flat Belt, 
as used by Toolmakers. 



the hardened bushing B and lubricates the spindle. H rep- 
resents the ball-bearing seat, which is hardened and ground 
perfectly flat and presses over the hardened bushing, seat- 
ing against the rear head stock-standard. I represents the 
balls, and H the hardened and ground conical ball race, 
which, with H, gives us a three-point bearing for the balls 
I. K represents the take-up nut, and J the binding screw. 
For the rear bearing 3 and 45 degrees are used at C and D, 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



47 



as the wear is about equal in this bearing and drilling does 
not have a tendency to bind the spindle. With these bear- 
ings so constructed, all possible shake can be taken from 
the front journal of the lathe and still allow it to revolve 
freely. The ball bearing and rear bearing are then adjusted 
to leave no end shake and there will be no binding, and the 
wear of the spindle is reduced to a minimum. This lathe is 
known as the "Dale," and is having a considerable sale as 
a speed lathe for toolmakers, and also with grooved pulley 
for many watchmakers. 




Fig. 31. Section of:Headstock of Hammel, Riglander & Co.'s Lathe, 
showing construction of parts. 



Figs. 31 and 32 show a lathe that is having a considera- 
ble sale in America, although it is made in Europe. The 
lathe is of the Moseley pattern (i. e., it has center guides), 
and the headstock is made one-half inch longer, to give 
room on the spindle for the ball bearings. H and A are 
the front and rear bearings; B. B. oil holes; E and G, the 
two parts of the ball bearing — the seat and race ; F the 
balls. It will be noticed that in this lathe the rear cone 



4 8 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 




THE AMERICAN LATHE. 49 

bearing of the headstock is simply enlarged and grooved at 
its inner end 2 to make the ball seat ; also that the ball race 
is screwed on the spindle, instead of sliding upon it, so that 
it is adjusted by turning the race, whereas in the Dale the 
race slides on the spindle and is pushed forward by turning 
the nut K behind it. In Fig. 31 the nut shown on the 
same thread with G is simply a jamb nut, to hold G in po- 
sition after it is adjusted. Both G and its jamb nut are 
worked by a pin wrench. The next point of difference is 
that this is a two-point bearing, while the Dale is a three- 
point. If the reader will examine the construction of H, I, 
H, Fig. 30, and E, F, G, Fig. 31, he will readily see the dif- 
ference. In Fig. 30 the balls, I, touch on three plane sur- 
faces, while in Fig. 31 the balls F roll in a groove, which is 
an arc of a circle of larger diameter than the balls. To go 
into the merits of these different forms of ball-bearing con- 
struction would be to quote a controversy that would last 
as long as the bearing, and would take the reader into plane 
and spherical trigonometry, calculus and questions of shop 
practice, only to find out at the end that either form will 
answer for such light work as is here indicated. The stu- 
dent who desires to inquire further into the subject is re- 
ferred to the manufacturers, either of whom is competent to 
give the reasons for adopting the form he has chosen. 

The object of introducing ball-bearing thrust collars is 
to reduce friction from end thrust, and in order to do this 
the spindle must be adjusted so that all end thrust is taken 
by the balls while the end shake is taken up by the rear 
thrust collar, leaving the front spindle bearing running on 
the three-degree taper only. For this reason the front 
thrust collar is omitted in the Dale, and it serves no purpose 
in Fig. 31, while the balls are in use. The only reason we 
can see for leaving it on is that if for any reason the balls 
should get lost, or broken, the owner would not be de- 
prived of the use of the lathe until they were replaced. 



5° 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



The lathe is well made, hardened throughout, and can 
be used with American chucks after taking the precautions 
noted previously concerning the seating of the chucks and 
the draw-in spindle. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF THE SPLIT CHUCK. 

Having now a fair understanding of the construction of 
our lathe bed, headstock and spindles, we will take up the 
study of the chucks we are to use for holding our work. 
Incidentally, we shall find that while there are upwards of 
one hundred variations of this useful article, they may all 
be classed as of two kinds of bodies, split and solid, the 
variations being confined chiefly to the formation of that 
portion which projects from the lathe, while the truth and 
accuracy of this work-holding device has to do chiefly with 
that portion of the chuck which lies within the spindle when 
the chuck is performing its proper office. 

Let us first consider it mathematically, just as we did the 
construction of our lathe, because by so doing we shall see 
the reasons for many things that will be developed as we get 
farther along, and many points will be made plain to the 
novice which he might not so readily grasp if he did not 
thoroughly understand the theory upon which the chuck is 
built. The split chuck is a clamp, forced along an inclined 
plane by means of the screw thread at its inner end. The 
inclined plane is the conical mouth of the lathe spindle, and 
in action the chuck is drawn into the cone (and towards the 
smaller diameter of the cone), thus forcing the several jaws 
of the chuck to close slightly and exert a clamping action on 
the piece of work that is being held. 

The jaws of the chuck are the base of a triangle, and the 
apex of the triangle is that point on the outside of the chuck 
jaw riding on the incline of the lathe spindle. The lines 
of forces exerted in this clamping action are represented in 

5* 



52 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

the partial drawing (Fig. 33) of a lathe spindle, with a 
chuck in position to act, by the dotted lines as follows : 
A and B are points at the mouth of the spindle cone at 
which the apices of the several triangles rest and in action 
are drawn along c c ; the apices of the triangles are the 
radial lines of force derived from the hand wheel on the 
Lack end of the draw-in spindle, at c, and are shown by the 
dotted lines d d. These lines express the direct line of the 
prime force, terminating at the apices of the triangles 
shown at the mouth of the chuck. At this point the prime 
force is deflected at an angle terminating at the bases of the 
triangles, which form the clamping surfaces of the several 






Fig. 33. Showing lines of force in clamping a chuck. 

jaws of the chuck. The deflection of the prime force at 
this point is caused by the opposition to its action of the 
inclined plane of the spindle, and while the prime force is 
one of tensile strain, the resultant one is that of compres- 
sion, resulting in the clamping action at the base of the 
triangle, and is the force found in the jaws of the chuck. 

It will be seen that if the chuck seat is too small the 
chuck will not have its angles A, c, c, and B, c, c equilateral 
triangles, and the resultant compression will not pass 
through the centers of the jaws in the line A, B, but will 
pass nearer to the inner ends of the jaws, in proportion as 
the seat is too small ; in this case we will have the work 
held by the inner ends of the jaws only, allowing the outer 
ends to slip or remain free of the work entirely, when any 
considerable pressure on the work will allow it to slip out 
of center. Similarly, if the chuck seat is too large the 




THE AMERICAN LATHE. 53 

outer ends will receive the force of compression and the 
inner ends of the jaws will be without proper bearing on 
the work, and it will slip as before. If the chuck seat is not 
round, the jaw which comes opposite the flattened side of 
the chuck seat will come into action sooner than the others, 
and tend to push the work out of center. 

If we have properly fitting and true chucks we can still 
affect their truth and accuracy of holding work on just 
these lines in several ways. If we force too large a piece 
into the chuck, we shall spring the jaws outwards, and 
practically enlarge the outer diameter of the chuck so that 
the seat will no longer fit the chuck, and we have the same 
results as if the chuck seat were originally made too small. 
If we use the chuck on too small a piece of work, then the 
jaws of the chuck will close further than they were intended 
to do, and the second set of conditions confronts us. Hence 
we see that in order to obtain the proper direction of the 
line A .B of the force of compression, which holds the work 
properly, we must keep our chuck nearly the proper size, so 
that the line of force may pass midway of the length of the 
jaws. When this is the case, the bearing is such that all 
forces are balanced within the triangles Ace and B c c of 
the jaws, and there is no strain on the springs which hold 
the jaws in position and form part of the body of the 
chuck. 

Further, if the piece of work be much too large, or much 
too small, the jaws will not be parallel when they are closed 
upon it, and we then have the work held by one end only of 
each jaw. This would not be so bad if that jaw were rigid, 
but it is not ; it is held in place by a spring. And we then 
have a bearing along either of the lines A c with the base of 
the triangle completed by the spring which holds the jaw. 
Of course, any considerable pressure will then cause wab- 
bling of the work, and this will be greater as the spring is 
weaker, and less as the spring is more powerful. It was 



54 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

this tendency of the workman to use the chuck to hold im- 
proper sizes of work that was primarily responsible for the 
prevalent notion that good work could not be done with 
split chucks. It was also responsible largely for the gen- 
eral discarding of the small-bodied chuck, generally known 
as No. I, manufacturers having found that this tendency to 
the abuse of chucks could not be wholly prevented, and that 
the longer and larger bodies enabled them to get more 
metal in the springs of their chucks, so that they were stif- 
fer and would stand up better when improperly used, as 
explained above. The larger hole was, of course, an ad- 
vantage to the workman, but the real reason for their in- 
crease in favor was the increase in the size of the springs 
holding the jaws. No. i chucks are still in use, and are 
supplied when called for by those who have the No. i 
lathes, but they are not recommended by the manufacturers 
to the purchasers of new lathes. 

This brings up the practical question of how far a chuck 
will spring and still do reasonably good work. For extremely 
accurate work, one-fourth of a size should be the limit. 
Chucks are generally sized with a unit of measurement of 
one-tenth of a millimeter, or its equivalent in thousandths 
of an inch. Thus No. 4 chuck means that the jaws are 
parallel when the hole is .4 mm.; No. 4^/2 equals .45 mm., 
etc. A reference to the scale of sizes given by the manu- 
facturers will show half sizes from No. 3 to No. 10; thence 
forward they increase by tenths of millimeters to No. 70, 
which is seven millimeters in diameter. Thus if a work- 
man has a piece of work between No. 5 and No. 5^, he will 
not have to spring his chuck jaws more than one-fourth of 
a size to fit it. The use of half sizes is strongly recom- 
mended for the further reason that many staffs and arbors 
are made to half sizes, or nearly so, and in such cases the 
work will be found to fit the chuck perfectly, with, of 
course, a great gain in the truth and accuracy of the work 



TJiB AMERICAN LATHE. 55 

to be performed upon it. Above No. 10 the amount of 
work is much less and consequently the need of half sizes 
is not so great, although they would be an advantage. The 
workman may (and many do habitually) turn their work to a 
size that will fit their chucks, or nearly so, and the result- 
ing gain in accuracy is an important one ; below No. 10, 
however, it is best to provide yourself with half sizes of 
chucks and not attempt to disturb the carefully thought out 
proportions of a fine watch. 

This brings us to the consideration of the bodies of our 
chucks, and in order to understand it properly we shall 
have to know something of its history and the successive 
changes incident to its growth. 

In 1857 or 1858 Charles S. Moseley was designing ma- 
chinery for the Boston Watch Company, Roxbury, Mass., 
afterwards known as the American Waltham Watch Com- 
pany; John Stark and Ambrose Webster were also em- 
ployes of the same company at that time. Mr. Moseley 
and Mr. Stratton, his associate^ were at work upon a device 
for holding and releasing work in watch factory lathes 
which should do away with the necessity which then ex- 
isted of putting lathe dogs on every piece which had to be 
turned. The original chuck made by Mr. Moseley had four 
jaws, because they did not have at hand any means of accu- 
rately splitting the chuck in three sections. So the first 
chuck (and only the one chuck) was split by making two 
cuts clear through it, at right angles to each other, thus 
producing four jaws. Finding it likely to be a success as 
a work-holder, they fitted up a slitting machine and thus 
the first split chuck was born. 

It was at first used as a holder for work that was already 
cut off, and a solid draw-in spindle was used to tighten the 
jaws of the chuck. Then it was pointed out that by mak- 
ing the draw spindle hollow the stock could be fed through 
it, and the work cut ofF after being partially completed. 



56 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

The device was designed for and first used with the old 
two -bearing watch factory lathe, but was rejected after 
some trials, because the chuck would not go back into the 
same place every time if some pieces were larger than 
others. 

Mr. Moseley tlien modified his lathe so that the chuck 
was held in a fixed position and the lathe spindle advanced 
upon and receded from the jaws of the chuck to open and 
close it. This device is one of the most important features 
of all automatic machinery today, and has spread from 
watch factories into dozens of other metal-working lines, 
as it is the only known means of practically holding a piece 
ot work true and gripping and releasing it instantly. 

John Stark, C. S. Moseley and Ambrose Webster, each 
utilized their experience in the production of automatic 
watch-making machinery to design and build watchmakers' 
lathes, after severing their connection with the Waltham 
factory* All of them used the split chuck in their new pro- 
ductions, and they made them light and delicate because 
their watch factory training had been entirely upon the 
lines of having tools enough to do work well within the ca- 
pacity of those tools. The watch repairer, however, did not 
understand the necessity of having so many chucks, and 
attempted to get along with less, so he sprung his chucks 
and then condemned the principles upon which they were 
made. The controversy thus started has continued until 
the present day, but is steadily growing less as watchmak- 
ers are coming to understand the limitations of the device 
and comprehending that they must work within those lim- 
itations or take the consequences. 

Fig. 34 is one of the first chucks put on the American 
market. All these cuts are actual sizes of the chucks they 
represent. This chuck was generally left soft. I have 
come across a good many of them ; they are generally split 
to within a very short distance of the rear end, which, to- 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



57 



gether with the small diameter of the body (3-16-inch) al- 
lows them to spring all over ; in fact, about the only thing 
a chuck of this design will do successfully is spring, and 
it is this very element of springing which must be eliminat- 
ed as nearly as possible to get good results with a chuck. 
If, after the work was in its place and gripped sufficiently 
tight to hold it, the slots could be eliminated, you would 
then have a solid holder, the very thing wanted, for solidity 
is a very important element in close work; but since they 
cannot be dispensed with on account of the necessity for 
gripping and releasing the work quickly, the only thing 
left is for the designer to make them as short as possible, 



<^7 



© Q) 



^ 




Fig. 34. 



Fig. 35. 



Fig. 36. 



consistent with the length and general dimensions of the 
chuck and make the body as large as possible. 

^§"- 35 is tn e second chuck brought out by John Stark, 
Sr., of Waltham, about 1870. The head of this chuck is 
about y 2 -mch diameter, and body 1-32 of an inch larger 
than his first No. 1. One-half inch diameter has proved 
to be large enough for the head of any watchmaker's chuck 
and the body should* be smaller than the head by just the 
amount that is necessary to leave sufficient length of angle 
on the head, so that it will draw into the spindle firmly, 
without putting too much strain on the threads of the 



$S THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

chuck and draw-in spindle. This angle varies with differ- 
ent makers, but the majority of manufacturers are making 
watchmakers' chucks with a 20-degree angle of head and 
the others are gradually coming round to that angle, as it 
seems satisfactory after years of use. 

Fig. 36 shows the popular dimensions of the modern 
chuck, in which the reader will note the shortening of the 
angle of the head (20 degrees) and the consequent en- 
larged body. The heads of Figs. 35 and 36 are the same 
size ; it takes the same amount of stock and labor to make 
them ; yet the difference in strength and durability is im- 
mense, as will be seen by a glance at the small cuts, which 
represent the same chucks with their heads cut off. Either 
of the previous two will go inside of Fig. 36, and the differ- 
ence of the amounts of material and consequent strength of 
the springs is immense. In addition to these structural 
differences there is a great difference in the size of wire that 
will go clear through the chuck. 

The shape of the face of the chuck has also been the sub- 
ject of evolution; all chucks were at first made with a flat 
face; this was found to bring the work too near the spin- 
dle, making it difficult to get at ; then they were coned, as 
shown in Fig. 35, and use developed the fact that the fur- 
ther projecton of the jaws of the chuck interfered with its 
accuracy of holding work. Finally a compromise resulted 
in grinding the face of the chuck to an arc of a circle, which 
gave freedom of access while greatly reducing the extension 
of the jaws beyond the spindle. This was found satisfac- 
tory to the majority of the trade, and was universally 
adopted. 

In 1893 Hardinge Bros., of Chicago, produced a flat- 
faced series of chucks in half sizes that were made with 
special care, and intended to prove that the use of wax 
and cement on balance staff work was totally unnecessary. 
This course was actuated by the following reasoning : 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



59 



"In the two sectional views here shown, Figs. 37 and 38, 
the difference between the old style round-faced and new 
style flat-faced chuck is readily apparent. The lines ter- 
minating in the center of inside bearing of chuck which 
holds the work, show the direction of pressure on both in- 
side and outside of chuck when in use, and its relation to 
the spindle. The old style is practically a shoulder chuck 
up to No. 10, as all, or most of the bearing is outside of 
the spindle, and the truth of the chuck is dependent upon 
the strength of each section ; the weakest of the three will 
spring most. In most designs and all chucks of small 





Fig. 37. Fig. 38. 

diameters, each section is weak and springs easily. In 
the flat face the bearing is under the head and the pressure 
direct as it should be. This is the only correctly designed 
chuck yet produced. With Dale chucks like this, in full 
and half sizes, the finest staff and pinion work can be done. 
We make them for any lathe, from No. 3 to No. 30, and in 
any size for Moseley No. 2, on account of conoidal design." 
The other manufacturers immediately denied the force 
of this reasoning, and a controversy ran for some time. 
Mr. Hardinge claimed the accuracy of his position, and the 
others claimed its value was largely imaginary and was 
offset by the inconveniences of having to work closer to the 



60 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

lathe spindle. Neither side ever convinced the other, and 
we give the controversy, without expressing an opinion of 
our own, chiefly on account of its historical value, as the 
date of the reintroduction of the flat-faced chucks. A very 
large number of these chucks have been sold, and have 
given satisfaction to their purchasers. 

Another special form of chuck is the conoidal, Fig. ^9, 
invented by Mr. C. S. Moseley, for his No. 2 and larger 
lathes. The reasoning was that such chucks could be man- 
ufactured with more uniform accuracy, as the gradual taper 
from jaw to spring made them less liable to crack in hard- 




Fig. 39. The Conoidal Chuck. 

ening, and also less liable to wabble when the chuck was 
used beyond its proper range. It is a very satisfactory 
chuck as made by the Moseley Lathe Co., but considerable 
trouble has been found in using imported chucks of this 
pattern, for the reason that if they are not evenly split and 
tempered the greater strength of the thicker springs in 
them will accentuate the difficulties of drawing the several 
jaws to a true center. Also, if the arc to which the chuck 
is ground and that of the lathe spindle do not coincide, the 
greater length of the taper increases the difficulties which 
would otherwise be encountered. 

For these reasons other manufacturers have clung to the 
conical head, and preferred to use a short head, join it to 
the body as nicely as possible when grinding, and take 
chances on having them snap off at the joint when harden- 
ing. 

Perhaps it may add to the reader's knowledge of the 
subject if we briefly summarize the process of manufacture 
of these indispensable articles. There is no secret about 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 6l 

the manufacture of a chuck ; any one that is near enough to 
a factory in which they are made may enter and see it done ; 
but unless he possesses the necessary personal skill, he can 
never make a uniform product. That is the whole secret — 
skill in working, hardening and tempering steel. Briefly 
it may be summarized into the knowledge necessary to 
build automatic machinery that will run with perfect truth, 
and this carries with it the knowledge necessary to success- 
fully operate such machinery after it is built, for in this 
case uniformity of production is a necessary concomitant of 
accuracy and to secure uniformity handwork must be elim- 
inated as far as possible. For this reason all chucks are 
made upon special tools, built in the factory. 

The blank is formed on the end of a bar of the finest tool 
steel, in a specially constructed turret lathe, which performs 
eight distinct operations, including the cutting of the thread 
and the final one of cutting off the blank, a proper margin 
of stock being left for the subsequent operations. The 
blanks are then reduced to the proper external dimensions 
in a grinding machine, which takes very light cuts, and 
work and wheels revolve in opposite directions at great 
speed. Everything is measured by micrometers and 
brought to exact size; great care is used and the work is 
never hurried. After grinding, the threads are sized by a 
standard die and the chucks are keyseated by a milling tool 
carrying a cutter corresponding to the make of lathe for 
which the chuck is intended. Then the heads are rounded 
to the precise arc required (which also varies with different 
chucks), and they are stamped with the name of the manu- 
facturer. The chucks are next "back drilled ;'" that is, the 
large holes clear through them are made by placing the 
blanks in the head spindle and the proper sized drill in the 
tail spindle of another machine. This hole extends nearly 
to the face of the chuck, falling short by just the amount 
necessary to< give the proper length of the jaws of the 



62 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

chuck. This length of grip is carefully proportioned to the 
size of the hole, so as to give the greatest holding power, 
which is a point in which many chucks are deficient. Too 
short a jaw reduces the time required in grinding the jaws 
to truth, and hence reduces the factory cost at the expense" 
of the holding power of the chuck, while too long a jaw 
adds to the expense of manufacture without adding to the 
value of the product. 

The blanks are then stamped with the number or size of 
the finished chuck, after which they are "front drilled" on 
another machine, the drills entering from the front and 
making the hole which forms^the jaws of the chuck, suffi- 
cient stock being left for grinding the hole to truth after 
splitting. 

They are then split to a standard depth of spline, care- 
fully proportioned to the size of the particular chuck in 
hand, and varying with each size. This is an important 
point in which many makers of chucks have failed, for 
unless a chuck be properly split it will not hold the work 
with any degree of accuracy. The splitting is done by 
means of small steel circular saws, which are proportioned 
in thickness to the work to be done, and they require an- 
other special machine to keep them in order, which is done, 
like the rest, by grinding. 

After splitting, the jaws of the chucks are ground out by 
means of revolving laps, and either emery, carborundum or 
corundum and oil, to nearly the desired size, after which 
they are hardened and tempered. , In many factories this 
completes the job ; many Swiss and some American chucks 
show the blackened surface in the jaws, left there by the 
hardening process. In the best factories, however, they are 
again ground and polished inside and out, in order to re- 
move any inequalities caused by hardening and tempering, 
and are not allowed to leave the factory until they are per- 
fectly true, inside and outside. 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 63 

Of course, it is only natural that such processes should 
leave traces of their presence or absence on the work, and 
any one knowing them can readily judge of the quality of 
workmanship by inspection of the chuck, if he knows where 
to look at it. 

When split chucks were first made they were sized by 
Stubbs' wire gauge, as they were intended to use wire, 
chiefly, and Stubbs' gauge was then in universal use. Am- 
brose Webster was the first man to make them to milli- 
meter gauge; he reasoned, correctly, that the chucks used 
by watchmakers were chiefly for repair work, and therefore 
should be adapted to the measuring instruments in use by 
watchmakers. These were at that time nearly all imported 
from Europe, and were consequently on the metric system. 
Therefore he made his unit of measurement one-tenth of a 
millimeter, and numbered them so that the number of the 
chuck should express the number of tenths of a millimeter 
of the diameter of the hole. By this system the smallest 
practicable chuck is No. 3, which is three-tenths of a milli- 
meter, and the largest No. 70, which is seven millimeters, 
the largest practicable size for the No. 2 lathe. The con- 
venience of having chucks to correspond with the gauges in 
use was immediately recognized and the system was fol- 
lowed by others as the demand for it grew. 

Tool makers in America, being accustomed to work by 
thousandths of an inch, and having their gauges on that 
system, demanded chucks on the same system, and tool 
makers' chucks are generally sized in that way. 

We, therefore, have three systems of sizes in more or less 
general use today, as follows: Stubbs' wire gauge, in 
which the holes get smaller as the numbers increase, and 
the metric and decimal systems, in which the holes increase 
with the increase of numbers, indicating their sizes. 

The following tables were compiled by Mr. Franklin 
Hardinge, a manufacturer of chucks ; they give the dimen- 



64 



THE AMERICAN LATHE 



sions of all chucks in common use among watchmakers, 
and a close study of the tables in connection with what has 
been said concerning the design and manufacture of these 
useful articles should prove very interesting: 



TABLE GIVING DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF MEASURING 
CHUCKS AND THEIR EQUIVALENTS. 





X 






X 




X 






X 


DO 

-4J 



'C 


o M 


GO 


6 


a -5 

a z 
M 


X 

3 

-M 




u 

8 


3 — 
| z 


X 

3 


6 

'u 


^ 


CO 


8 




CO 


2 


Q 


CO 


0) <+4 

Q 


CO 
16 


8 


q 





3 


.0118 





n% 


.0452 


35 




.108 


.175 


80 


... 


.013 




12 


.047 







.19 





"45 


.177 




3^ 


.0137 


... 




.049 


34 


"a§" 


.110 


15 


.... 


.178 


79 





.014 




12% 


.0492 


33 




.112 


14 





.180 


7* 





.015 


"55 




.050 




29 


.114 








.1811 





4 


.0157 





i§~ 


.0511 


32 




.115 


... 


46 


.181 


77 


... 


.016 







.052 




30 


.118 


13 





.182 






.017 





13^ 


.0531 


31 


_. 


.120 






.184 





4% 


.0177 


54 




.055 


... 




.121 


"l2" 


"47" 


.185 


76 




.018 





ii" 


.0551 




31 


.122 






.188 








.019 


.. 


144 


.057 








.124 


11 


48 


.189 


.. 


5 


.0196 


53 




.058 


. 


32 


.126 






.191 


75 





.0*0 





15"' 


.059 


30 




.127 


'16" 




.1929 








.021 







.061 





"33" 


.1299 





"49" 


.192 





5^ 


.0216 


52 


16 


.063 






.130 






.194 


74 





.022 







.064 







.133 


"§" 




.1969 


73 





.023 


51 




.066 





34 


.1339 





"E6" 


.196 


... 


6 


.0236 





[f " 


.067 


29 


._ 


.134 






.197 


72 





.024 


50 





.069 







.136 


"8 




.199 


... 


.. 


.025 







.070 




35 


.1378 


7 




.200 





Q l A 


.0255 





is 


.0709 


"28 




.139 




"5l" 


.201 


71 





.026 


49 




.072 




36 


.1417 


6 




.2047 


70 


... 


.027 







.073 







.142 


5 


"52" 


.204 





7 


.0275 





19 


.0748 


27 




.143 






.207 


69 


... 


.029 


48 




.075 




37 


.145 


"1" 




.208 


... 


7y 2 


.0295 








.076 


26 


... 


.146 





"53" 


.209 


68 





.030 


47 


.. 


.077 


25 




.148 







.2126 


67 





.031 




20 


.0787 




38 


.1496 





"54" 


.2125 





8 


.0315 


^ 





.079 


24 





.151 




55 


.216 


66 





.032 


45 


__ 


.081 


23 




.153 


"2 




.2195 


65 





.033 





I 


.082 





39 


.1535 




"56' 


.2204 





sy 2 


.0334 


44 





.085 






.154 


_'_ 


57 


.224 


64 





.035 





22 


.086 


22 





.155 


1 




.227 


... 


9 


.0354 


43 





.088 


21 




.157 




"58" 


.228 


63 





.036 





23 


.0906 





"46" 


.1575 




59 


.2322 


62 




.037 






.091 






.160 




60 


.2362 




"9% 


.0374 


"42" 





.092 


"20" 




.161 




61 


.240 


*6l 





.038 





24 


.094 





*ii 


.1614 




62 


.244 


60 





.039 


41 





.095 






.163 




63 


.248 





10 


.0393 


40 





.097 


19 




.164 




64 


.2519 


59 





.040 





25 


.098 





"42 


.1654 




65 


.2559 


58 





.041 


39 





.099 






.166 




66 


.2598 





ioy 2 


.0413 








.100 


18 




.168 




67 


.2677 


57 





.042 


38 





.101 


.«..- 




.169 




68 


.2637 






.043 





26 


.1024 




43 


.1693 




69 


.27!6 





ii" 


.0433 


37 


... 


•103 


17 




.172 




70 


.2755 


56 .... 


.45 


36 


27 


.106 1 


.... 44 


.173 









THE AMERICAN LATHE 



65 



TABLE SHOWING DIMENSIONS OF CHUCKS OF VAR- 
IOUS MANUFACTURES. 



NAME OF CHUCK 



Pia. Dia. 

of of 

Head Body 



Dia. 

of 

Thread 



Angle 

of 
Head 



Total 

Length 

less 



Largest 
Hole clear 
Through 



Largest 

Hole 
in Front 



Dale No. 1 

Dale A *.. 

Dale No. 2 

Daie B ' 

Dale No. 3 

Dale C 

Dale No. 4 

Dale D , 

Hopkins No. 1 

Hopkins No. 2 

Hopkins No. 3 

Hopkins No. 3 4. ...... 

Hopkins No. 4 

Rivett No. 1. 

Rivett No. 3.. 

Rivett No, 4. 

Stehmens J. & S. No. 1. 
Stehmens J. & S. No. 2. 

Moseley No. 1 

Moseley No. 1 x 2 

Moseley No. 2. . . , 

Moseley No. 3 Conoidal. 
Moseley No. 3, 15 degree 
Moseley " 4, Bench Lathe 

Whitcomb No. 1 

Whitcomb No. l^g* 

Whitcomb No. U 

Webster Whitcomb 

Whitcomb No. 2 JJcSy 
Whitcomb No. 2* " 

Whitcomb No. 3- • ■ 

,,,. . , -*t Large 

Wuitcomb No. 3 Thread 

Whitcomb No. 4 

Whitcomb No. 4 ^ n a r r / a e d 

Triumph or Elgin 

Mansfield 

Hinkley 

Stark No. 1 

Stark No. 2 

Stark No. 3 Watchmaker, 

Stark E *. .... 

Stark D 

Stark No. 3 Bench Lathe 
Stark No. 4 " " 

Geneva .' „ 

Kearney 

Tarrant Bench Lathe. . . 

Springfield No. 4 

Olin Watchmakers...,. 

Pratt & Whitney 

Automatic Special 

Bailou & Whitcomb 

Lapper Special 

Star Special 

Ide Bench Lathe 

Special Tool makers 



.500 
.500 
.625 
.625 
.890 
.890 
1.125 
1.125 
.435 
.530 
.460 
.530 
.850 
.500 

.825 
1.025 
.650 
.650 
.430 
.500 
,500 
.600 
.625 
.875 
.375 
.435 
.435 
.500 

.560 
.750 
.865 
.865 
1.080 
1.080 
.500 
.500 
.475 
.435 
.500 
.500 
.500 
.62 5 

.875 
1.430 
.425 
.500 
.800 
.800 
.500 
.850 y 
.475 
.475 
.760 
.600 
.800 
1.650 



.335 

.335 

.450 

.450 

.650 

.650 

.825 

.825 

.2285 

.325 

.260 

,3255 

.605 

.300 

.590 

.750 

.370 

.380 

.240 

.3135 

.314 

.400 

.400 

.590 

,1965 

,236 

,255 

.3147 

.355 

.4725 
.590 

.590 
1747 
.747 
.275 
.300 
..280 
.187; 
.2205 
.245 
.300 
..355 



.295 
.325 
.395 
.435 
.560 
.635 
.700 
18IO 
.187 
.250 
.220 
.285 
.545 
.265 

.525 
.665 
.320 
.325 
.208 
.270 
.270 
.350 
.350 
.490 
.168 
.182 
.220 
.270 

278 
.370 
.508 
.587 
.665 
.745 
.250 
.270 
.250 
.165 
.185 
.185 
.270 
•305 



.590 
.998 
.235 
.300 
.550 
.500 
:.311 
.600 
.281 
.3147 
.495 
.320 
.500 
1.125 



.508 
.990. 
.200 
.265 
.475 
.425 
.270 
.500 
.248 
.270 
.430 
.260 
.425 
1.125 



40 Eng. 

40 ' 

30 

30 

24 

24 

20 

20 

48 

36 

40 

40 

24 

40 

26 Eng. 
20 Eng. 
34 " 
32 " 
48. " 
40 " 
40 " 
36 u 
36 " 
25 " 
55 Met. 
63 " 
63,. " 
63 " 



.71 


Met. 


.85 


" 


1. 


ti 


1.25 


(< 


1.25 


ti. 


1.63 


(< 


4S 


Eng- 


40 


u 


40 


" 


48 


" 


48 


" 


48 


" 


40 


'" 


40 


" 



15° 
15° 
15° 
J5° 
15° 
15° 
15° 
15° 
25° 
25° 
25° 
25° 
20° 
20° 

20° 
20° 
20° 
20° 
25° 
20° • 
Condi 
Condi 
15° 
20° 
20° . 
20° . 
20° 
20° 

20° 
20° 
20° 
lO 

15° 
J 5° 
•25° 
20° 
20° 

22i° 
20° 
20° 
20° 



26 Eng. 
20 " 
71 Met. 
44 Eng. 
32 " 
32 " 
40 ". 
24 " 
32 " 
63 Met. 
40 Eng. 
40 " 
32 " 
18 " 



20° 
15° 
20° 
25° 
25o 
25o 
20° 
20o 
20° 
15° 
20° 
25° 
20° 
12° 



1.437 
1.437 
1.812 
1.812 
2.250 
2.250 
3.125 
3.125 
1.031 
1.187 
1.— 
1.360 
2.437 
1.250 
2.125 
2.750 
1.8C2 
1.812 
1.250 
1.250 
1.562 
1.750 
1.844 
2.312 
.936 
1,093 
1.140 
1 .312 

1.500 
1.531 
2.125 
2.187 

2.875 
2.875 
1.218 
1.250 
1.312 
1.108 
1.250 
.1.218 
1.250 
1.750 

2.125 

2.312 

1.156 

1.531 

2.500 

1.875 

1.250 

2.063 

1.500 

1.937 

2.125 

1.563 

2. 

7. 



m.m.5.8 

" 6.5 

" 8. 

" 10. 

" 10. 

" 14. 

" 14. 

" 18. 

" 2.8 

11 4.4 

" 3.8 

" • 5.2 

" 10. 

" 4.8. 

ro.m.lO. 

11 13. 

" 6.5 

" 6.5 

" 3. 

" 5. 

" 5. 

" 6.5 

". 6.5 

" 9.5 

11 2.5 

" 3.3 

" 3.8 

" 5. 

m.m.5.5 

'7. 

10. 

13. 

13. 

17. 
4.4 
4.8 
4.2 
2.3 
2.8 
2.8 
4.8 
6.5 

i.l0. 
25. 
3.5 
4.8 



5. 
10. 

4. 

5. 

8. 

4.8 

8. 
22.22 



m.m. 6.5 


" 6.5 


*' 10. 


" 10. 


" 14. 


" 14. 


" 18. 


" 18. 


" 4.2 


" 6,5 I 


'■ 5. 


11 6.5 


•■■ 13. 


" 6. 



m.m. 13. 

" 17. 

" 7. 

M 7. 

" 4.7 

" 6.5 

" 6.5 

11 7. 

" 7. 

" 13. 

." 3.6 

" 4.4 

" 6. 

" 6.5 

a.m. 7. 

". 9. 

". 13. 

11 13. 

" 17. 

tb 17. 

" 5. 

" 6. 

" 5.5 

" 3.5 

}* 4.2 

" 4.5 

<{ 6. 

" 7. 

i.m.1'3. 

"" 25. 

." 4.7 

" 6. 

<< 12. 

" ll! 

" 6. 

" 13. 

u 5.5 

il 6.5 

" 11. 

11 6.5 

" 11. 

' 25.4 



66 



THE AMERICAN LATHE 



TABLE OF DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF MILLIMETERS 
AND INCHES FOR TRANSLATING EITHER. 



MM. Inches. 

1-100 = .00039 

2-100 = .00079 

3-100 = .00118 

4-100 = .00157 

5-100 = .00196 

6-100 = .00236 

7-100 = .00275 

8-100 = .00315 

9-100 = .00354 

10-100 = .00394 

11-100 = .00433 

12-100 = .00472 

13-100 = .00511 

14-100 = .00551 

15-100 = .00590 

16-100 =.00630 

17-100 = .00669 

18-100 = .00709 

19-100 = .00748 

20-100 = .00787 



MM. 

21-10C 

22-100 
23-100 
24-100 
25-100 

26-100 
27-10) 
28-100 
29-100 
30-100 
81-100 
32-100 
33-100 
34-100 
35-100 
36-100 
37-100 
38-100 
39-100 
40-100 



Inches. 
= .00S26 
= .00866- 

= .00905 
= .00945 
= .00984 
= .01024 
= .01063 
= .01102 
= .01141 
= .01181 
= .01220 
= .01260 
= .01299 
= .01339 
= .01378 
= .01417 
= .01456 
= .01496 
= .01535 
= .01575 



MM. Inches. 

41-100 = .01614 
42-100 = .01654 
43-100 = .01693 
44-100 = .01732 
45-100 = .01771 
46-100 = .01811 
47-1 CO = .01850 
48-100 = .01890 
49-100 = .01929 
50-100 = .01969 
51-100 = .02008 
52-1 l = .02047 
53-100 = .02086 
54-100 = .02126 
55-100 = .02165 
56-100 = .02205 
57-100 = .02244 
58-100 = -02283 
59-100 = .02322 
60-100 =.0236* 



MM. Inches. 
61-100 = .02401 

62-1C0 = .0-2441 
63-100 = .02480 
64-100 = .02520 
65-100 = .02559 
66-100 = .02598 
67-100 = .02637 
68-100 = .02677 
69-103 = .02716 
70-100 = .02756 
71-100 = .02795 
72-100 = .02835 
73-100 = .02874 
74-100 = .02913 
75-100 = .02952 
76-1 CO =.02992 
77-100 = .03031 
73-100 = .03071 
79-100 = .03110 
80-100 = .03150 



MM 

81-100 

52-10' 
83-100 
£4-100 
85-100 
86-100 
87-100 
88-100 
S9-100 
9O-1C0 
91-100 
92-100 
93-100 
94-100 
95-100 
96-100 
97-100 
98-100 
99-100 
1 ruin. 



Inches 
= .03189 
= .03223 
= .03267 
= .03:307 
= .03346 
= .03386 
= .03425 
= .03465 
= .03504 
= .03543 
= .03582 
= .03622 
= .03661 
= .03701 
= .03740 
= .13730 
= .03819 
= .03858 
= .03897 
=..03937 



10 mm. = 1 Centimeter = 0.3937 inches. 
10cm. = 1 Decimeter =3.937 



10 dm. = 1 Meter = 39.37 inches 
25.4 mm. = 1 English inch. 



CHUCK GAUGE SHOWING ACTUAL SIZES OF CHUCKS 

ACCORDING TO THEIR NUMBERS ON 

THE METRIC SYSTEM. 




THE AMERICAN LATHE 



67 



In view of the detailed reasons which we were careful 
to set forth at length when considering the construction 
of split chucks, a comparison of the early and present forms 
of chucks is given in Figs. 40 and 41. Placed in this way 
the reader will at once see the immense superiority in 
strength, durability and capacity of the modern chuck. 
Probably more of the Moseley 1x2 and Webster-Whitcomb 
chucks are now in use than of all others put together, but 







No. 40. Early forms of chucks. 




Moseley 
1x2 

Fig. 41. Modern forms of chucks. 

this may, perhaps, be attributed to the superior enterprise 
of those manufacturers in pushing their product, rather 
than to any inherent excellence of workmanship or design, 
as close study will reveal that there is little substantial dif- 
ference between the modern chucks, while there were 
marked differences in proportions and design of the earlier 



6S 



THE AMERICAN LATHE 



forms. The workmanship on the earlier forms was uni- 
formly excellent, but the proportions were found, in use, to 
be not of the best, and hence they were discarded in favor 
of others which were found to have greater capacity and 
more durability under strain. 

The final point to be considered in the split chuck is its 
accuracy and durability in the hands of a competent work- 
man. In this connection we cannot refrain from giving the 
results of some tests published in the American Jeweler sev- 
eral years ago by Mr. A. S. Henry, together with a de- 
scription of the process of testing them, as described by 
him: 

"The set of chucks which were tested had been in daily 
use for seven years and much of the work in which they 
were used was heavier than the ordinary work of the 
watchmaker. Under these circumstances it is but fair 
to the maker to say that we consider that the error shown 
is attributable more to the heavy work which they have 
done than to any inherent fault of the chucks themselves, 
and while some of the errors, may, at a glance, seem ex- 
tremely large, yet they are in reality very small, and in 
many instances the error is so small as to approach per- 
fection very closely. 





Open 


Closed 


Chuck No. 


Spline 1 


Spline - 


Spline 3 


Spline 1 


Spline 2 


Spline 3 


11-.. 

12 




















5 
2 
4 
3 
24 

— 9 

— 10 

— 1 

1 
H 

— 3 
2 
1 

— 3 

— 5 


10 

15 

6 

5 

15 

— 8 
15 

1 

— 1 


10 

— 3 
11 

6 

— 5 
2 




















—15 

— 5 
4 

— 7 
6 

— 6 


— 1 

— 3 

— 8 

— 9 

— 2 

— 9 
1 

— 2 
—10 


—10 
5 


13._ 

14 

15 .._ 




—10 

4 


16 




17 


.. 


18 


l 


19 _.. 

20__ 


—10 


21 


9 


22 _. 


— 2 


23 


3 


24 

25 _.. 

26 


2 

— 4 

— 5 







THE AMERICAN LATHE 69 

"In the above table one division on the scale represents 
one twenty-thousandth of an inch, so that the chucks were 
practically perfect after seven years of steady usage. 

"The length of lever used was ten inches from the arbor 
to the outer end, and from arbor to the end resting in the 
chuck was one-eighth of an inch, thus increasing the error 
80 times at the outer end. An accurately made scale, grad- 
uated to one two-hundred and fiftieth of an inch, was set at 
the outer end of the lever, from which the extent of the mo- 
tion could be read by means of a double eyeglass. The 
mouth of the lathe spindle was thoroughly cleansed with 
gasoline and wiped with tissue paper, and the air ball was 
used to remove the last traces of fibre or dust. The chucks 
were treated in a similar manner, and carefully inserted 
and drawn into the spindle until they revolved the spindle, 
which was set so as to be perfectly free. This was done in 
order that the chuck would be drawn into place, yet was 
left in the normal state. In this way each chuck could be 
tested under the same conditions as nearly as possible. The 
spline bearing the chuck number was selected as No. I, and 
the holes in the index were selected which would bring 
the center of the splines at the top. Extreme care was 
exercised that the draw-in spindle was not touched so as to 
change its position, and the index pin, as well, was inserted 
only sufficiently to hold the index in position while the 
measurement was being made. The lathe spindle was 
tightened so that it was barely free, and on trial it was 
found that the same readings could be made repeatedly. 

"At spline I the index was adjusted to stand at zero, 
and this formed the base of measurement with which the 
other splines could be compared. In the table the absence 
of sign indicates that the lever went below zero, or the 
radius was greater than spline I, while the — sign indi- 
cates the lever went above normal. One division on the 
scale showed the one-twenty thousandth of an inch varia- 



70 THE AMERICAN LATHE 

tion in the chuck. The splines were first tested open, and 
then at spline i the chuck was drawn in until the lever 
indicated that it had been contracted one-four hundredth 
of an inch. The index finger was again set at zero and 
the readings proceeded with as before mentioned. 

This testing may be done in various ways, but the 
easiest and simplest way is to take a piece of pegwood and 
setting the T rest so it is about one-eighth of an inch from 
the work, lay the piece of pegwood upon it, when the ec- 
centricity of our work may be judged by revolving the 
lathe spindle and noticing the outer end of the pegwood 
stick, which will stand still if the work be true. By using 
a full length stick, and setting the T rest, as above, we 
will multiply the error in the work about fifty times. For 
those who want something more accurate and mechanical 
looking to test with, a long and light lever may be made 
of aluminum, which may be made of considerable length, 
from ten to fifteen inches long. Having the lever made, 
drill a hole near the larger end, into which is fitted a care- 
fully made, pointed, steel arbor. By making the hole for 
the arbor one-tenth of an inch from the point where the 
end rests against the work, and the lever ten inches long 
beyond the arbor, we can magnify the error in our work 
one hundred times. To find how many times such a tool 
would increase the error, divide the length of the lever 
beyond the arbor by the distance between the center of the 
arbor and the point where it rests against the work. While 
a single long lever is, perhaps, not so compact as a system 
of compound levers, it is more accurate and easier made 
and less chance for error. 

This lever is now mounted between hollow centers, as 
shown in Fig. 42, which is made to fit the shoe of the T 
rest. If we constructed the supports of the knife edge 
form, we would, theoretically, have a bearing with no error, 
but practically the pointed arbor, if carefully made, will be 



THE AMERICAN LATHE 



71 



all that is needed. When using the tool, to know what 
is the amount of error, it will be necessary to have a finely 
divided scale at the outer end from which we can read 
the extent of motion. Supposing that our lever is so con- 
structed as to increase the error one hundred fold, and the 
end of the lever moves one-fiftieth of an inch, by dividing 
one-fiftieth of an inch by one hundred we have the one 
five-thousandths of an inch that our work is out of true 
at the point supporting the end of the lever. This tool 
also may be used to measure the error in a balance staff, 
by putting the tool between one pair of centers while the 
staff is supported in the other pair of an ordinary depthing 




Fig. 42. Yoke for Testing Lever. 



tool, and by means of a gauge set the jaws so they are just 
one-tenth of an inch, or whatever proportion the lever is 
made for, apart ; then by revolving the work the error may 
be read off from the scale. 

The chucks which we have been considering have all 
had the grip for the work smaller, or no larger, than the hole 
through the chuck, and were designed primarily for feed- 
ing the stock through the chuck when performing work 
upon it. There are several other kinds, however, that are 
equally important, those with solid bodies and those with 
steps or shoulders larger than the hole through them, but 
which still belong to the first class, in that they are split 
like them and grip or hold the work in the same manner. 

Fig. 43 shows the original form of step chucks. This 
chuck originated in the days of the old No. 1 lathe, when it 
was frequently necessary to. use a device that would hold 



72 THE AMERICAN LATHE 

work which was larger than the hole through the chuck. 
It was at one time used for jewel settings, pinions that 
needed work done on the pivots of their staffs, the crowns 
of pendants, etc. It is a difficult chuck to make on 
account of the trouble experienced in getting the end 



Fig. 43. 

wall of the step true in the flat and joining it with the side- 
wall in such a way as to keep the corners sharp. In addi- 
tion the step hole is frequently not concentric with the 
chuck unless very carefully ground, and the hole is either 
too deep or too shallow for most of the work on which it 
is used, so that a rod must be inserted from the rear 
through the draw-in spindle and the shallow work pushed 
out to its proper place after inserting it in the chuck. As 
used in the watch factory, it gave complete satisfaction, be- 
cause the step was made to exactly fit the piece it was de- 
signed to hold, and it was used for that work and no 
other, but it was not designed to be a universal appliance, 
and those who tried to use it as such soon found themselves 
in difficulty ; in addition to its lack of range it was difficult 




a be 

Fig. 44. Stepping Device, a— -rests in chuck and should be slightly- 
less than diameter of work, ^—tightens in rear of draw-in spindle, 
c — turning this regulates depth of step. 

to clean; dirt would gather in the corners of the step and 
affect its truth. 

For these reasons the introduction of the larger chucks 
was soon followed by the stepping device, Fig 44. This con- 
sists of a rod having a screw thread at its front end, on 
which may be placed cylinders of any desired diameter, 
which should be a little smaller than the hole of the chuck 
in which it is being used. By having a sufficient number 



THE AMERICAN LATHE 



73 



of these removable cylinders any wire chuck may be con- 
verted into a step chuck and the objections as to range of 
work and difficulty of cleaning noted in regard to the solid 
step do not apply. Jewel settings and other thin, flat pieces 
which are liable to turn askew in chucking, may be perfectly 
handled in this way. The step is also useful in chucking 
short pieces, in order to bring them to uniform lengths after 
cutting off, and in many other ways. The collar shown 
midway on the rod should be an easy fit in the draw-in 
spindle. Its object is to keep the step central, so that the 
end will enter the chuck jaws easily. In use, the tapered 
seat b is pressed friction tight in the draw-in spindle and 
the thread used to regulate the depth of step desired, or it 
may also be used to push out very thin work, if there is 



Fig. 45. Fig. 46. 

difficulty in withdrawing it from the front. Care should 
be taken not to do this, however, if working on a number 
of pieces which should be of the same dimensions, as con- 
stantly changing the rod would make it impossible to get 
the same depth of step for all, as the adjusting thread is 
coarse, and the rod could not be returned to its exact posi- 
tion every time. 

Among the class of shoulder split chucks, Figs. 45 and 46, 
are the Hardinge Crown chucks. As they are made in 
properly ranged sizes the objections to the solid shoulder 
chuck do not apply to these chucks. They are made of fine 
bar steel, in thirteen sizes, and numbered as follows: 60, 
65, 70, 75> 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 105, no, 115, 120, 125; 60 
being the smallest and 125 the largest. With a full set you 
can hold all sizes of crowns, from the smallest Swiss to the 
largest American. They will be found a great convenience 
in fitting crowns, as they hold them so as to enable the 



74 



THE AMERICAN LATHE 



workman to operate on every part without trouble to him- 
self or injury to the crown. Do not expect to hold all sizes 
of crowns with two or three sizes of chucks. 

Another form of shoulder chuck is the auxiliary split 
chuck for jeweling, Fig. 47; while unnecessary for any one 
having a full set of chucks and a stepping device, they are 
frequently useful to those who are not so w 7 ell provided, and 
they are cheap. They are made of brass and are stepped 
for jewels having range from No. 15 to No. 33 in odd num- 
bers, also even numbers if desired. They are to be used in 
a wire chuck, being made in two sizes of body, viz., No. 
38 and No. 50. The steps are five sizes larger than the 
holes, so that jewels can be reversed in the steps; they are 




[.Fig. 47. Jewelling chucks. 

in sets of ten, as above. They are made also without steps, 
for screws, if desired. A small auxiliary brass chuck, to 
fit No. 38 wire chuck, is frequently used to hold screws and 
not injure the threads. 

Other chucks for holding crowns and other special de- 
vices will be considered when we reach the consideration of 
that class of chucks having a solid body and holding the 
work outside of the spindle. 

The next variety of step or shoulder chuck is the wheel 
chuck; these differ from those previously described in 
having more than one step on the same chuck, Fig. 48. 

In the beginning they were made with four-tenths of a 
millimeter between steps ; this did very well w T hile there 



THE AMERICAN LATHE 75 

were few sizes of wheels which the watchmaker had to 
handle; and five chucks were considered a full set. The 
addition of sizes of watches, how T ever, made new sizes of 
wheel chucks necessary, and a full set now consists of ten 
chucks having steps ranging two-tenths of a millimeter 
apart from 50 to 228. In order to get sufficient bearing on 
the back of each step to properly chuck the wheel, the steps 
on each chuck are ten sizes apart. Thus the first step on 
chuck No. 1 is 50 ; the second is 70, the third 90, etc. If 
we study the table of wheel-chuck sizes, Fig. 49, we shall 
find the first step, No. 50, on chuck No. 1 ; No. 52 is the first 
on chuck No. 2 ; 54 is first on No. 3, 56 on No. 4, and so on 




Fig. 48. 

until we reach 68, on No. 10. Returning, we repeat the 
steps on the next round, and so on until we reach 228 on the 
last step of the last chuck. In this way we secure 90 steps 
on ten chucks, while giving a proper bearing to each. 

In step chucks the important points are that the steps 
shall be round, concentric and that the side walls of each 
step shall be straight and square with the bottom, so that 
they shall grip the wheel properly. Brass wheels, crossed 
out in the middle and with the rims still further weakened 
by the teeth cut into them, are very much weaker than a 
solid disc would be, and therefore they are easily sprung 
out of round. When this happens, there is trouble with 
the depthings, unless the rounding-up tool is used, so that 
it is better to avoid it by seeing that the chucks fit your 
wheel in such a manner that they will hold it securely with- 
out using pressure enough to throw it out of round. There- 



7 6 



THE AMERICAN LATHE 




Fig". 49. 

fore have plenty of wheel chucks and get a close fit, so that 
the wheel will be gripped by practically a complete circle 
instead of by three points only ; otherwise you are certain 
to make trouble for yourself. If you cannot get a fit with 
the wheel chuck do not use it, but cement the wheel on a 
cement chuck, or use the face plate, Fig. 50, if the wheel 
is large enough so that the plate will take it. 



CHAPTER IV. 

FACE PLATES AND LARGE CHUCKS. 

Work that is larger than the spindle must necessarily be 
held outside of it, and for large work that is capable of be- 
ing held by it, there is no better device than the universal 
face plate of the machine shop, which is shown in two of 




Fig. 50. L T niversal Head. 



its adaptations for watchmakers, in Fig. 50, the universal 
head, and Fig. 51, the universal face plate. The universal 
head, Fig. 50, is the truest, most durable and most expen- 
sive of these devices. It consists of a complete, independ- 
ent headstock for the lathe, having the front end of its 
spindle extended far enough to receive a hardened steel 
plate, which is shrunk or soldered on to the spindle, so as 
to be permanently fastened to it. The spindle is hollow, 
and is pierced at the front end by a pump center, having a 

77 



THE AMERICAN LATHE 



male center that is operated by a rod extending through 
the spindle. Tapering peep holes in the plate are provided 
so that the workman may see the point of his center when 
placing the work before fastening it on the face plate. This 
is shown more clearly in the rear view of the universal face 
plate, Fig. 51, in which the point of the center may be 
clearly seen through the hole. Three jaws to hold the work 




Fig. 51. Universal Face Plate. 



are arranged to slide back and forth in radial slots in the 
face plate, to provide adjustment for varying sizes of work. 
They are fastened by thumbscrews at the back, and carry 




Fig. 52. Enlarged View of Jaw. 



clamps upon their faces, which are operated by two screws. 
The screw in the middle of the jaw regulates the width of 
opening, while that at the outer end presses up on the end 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 79 

of the jaw and thus exerts a downward or clamping force 
upon the work. Fig. 52 shows an enlarged view of the 
jaw in which the action is clearly shown. 

Everything about the appliance is made and fitted with 
the utmost care and the plate is ground off after it is 
mounted on the spindle in its own headstock. The only 
objection to the universal head is its cost and this, amount- 
ing, as it does, to a sum equal to the cost of the lathe, is 
practically prohibitory, so that very few of them are used. 

The universal face plate, Fig. 51, is the same appliance, 
mounted on a chuck, so that it can be put in the headstock 
and held in place by the draw-in spindle. The pump center 
rod is screwed into the pump center, and is unscrewed be- 




Face Plate, showing Circular Slots. 

fore inserting the chuck in place. It is then passed into the 
draw-in spindle from the rear, and screwed into the pump 
center again, when the face plate has been fixed in its posi- 
tion, after which it is operated as described for the uni- 
versal head. Nearly all workmen buy this plate instead of 
the universal head, as its cost is low, and while not as strong 
as the head, it has been found sufficient for the class of 
work it is called upon to perform. It should be handled 
and used with care, however, as, if sprung, all work done 
upon it would be thicker on one side until it was sent to a 
factory to be corrected. All parts of it are hardened, and 
the watchmaker would only make matters worse if he at- 



So THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

tempted to repair the damage himself. With proper usage 
and care it will stay true as long as the lathe, and every 
owner of a lathe should have a face plate, if he has not a 
universal head. 

We have always recommended the universal head as the 
most durable and, accurate device, and where economy is 
not absolutely necessary we should advise its use rather 
than the universal plate. The universal plate is subject to 
the errors which creep in from worn throats of lathe spin- 
dles, and also the wear and tear of the stem of the chuck 
on which it is fitted, and the risks of getting dirt in between 
the mouth of the spindle and the chuck. When all these 
points are properly watched and guarded against, accident- 
ally bringing the hand rest against the jaws when revolving 
would be sure to break the chuck pin of the lathe, or injure 
the jaws, and might spoil the universal plate. 

The centering from the back is provided for the reason 
that it is truer and more convenient than to center with a 
male center in the tail stock, as is done by the machinist, or 
with a peg wood or graver point from the T-rest. If the 
slide rest is on, the tail stock cannot be brought close 
enough to use in this way, and if it could be so used the 
taper in the tail stock might not be exactly centered, so the 
independent center has been provided. Ambrose Webster 
is said to have first made the taper peep holes in the plate, 
and C. S. Moseley was first to curve the radial slots, so 
that the jaws should be brought nearer to the center. 

Rivett makes his plates of solid nickel. 

A question often asked is : Why is the face plate not 
made to screw on, as it is on the machinist's lathe, so that 
any chuck could be used with it? This is not done for 
mechanical reasons in the manufacture. The spindle could 
be extended and a screw nose put on it, to take the face 
plate, as is done in engine lathes, were it not for the fact 
that the spindle is hardened and the threads could not be 
trued up after hardening. The face plate is also hardened, 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 8l 

and if they were put together in this way each face plate 
would have to be put on the spindle it was intended for, and 
ground up true on its own spindle. This would prevent 
making face plates and keeping them in stock, and if the 
plates should get mixed in shipping a consignment of lathes 
from the factory, there would be further trouble. The 
present arrangement answers all purposes, and is decidedly 
the best that has yet been evolved. In inserting the work 
the jaws should be moved towards the outside enough to 
allow the work to pass between them. The clamps on the 
jaws are now opened by loosening the knurled nuts at the 
back. Withdraw the pump center so that the work will not 
strike it, and insert the work. One jaw should now be 
lightly clamped so as to hold the work while adjusting the 
small stop nuts, which will be seen in Fig. 52, between the 
base and the top of the jaws, which should be so adjusted 
that when the jaw is clamped it will come down squarely on 
the work. 

While looking through one of the peep holes from the 
rear, press forward the pump center until it meets the hole 
or centering point of the work, and look through each of 
the three peep holes of the plate, to make sure the pump 
center is where it appears to be on the work, as it is easy 
to be deceived on this point, owing to the way you are look- 
ing at it. When you have centered the work, hold it 
lightly in position by means of the knurled nuts at the back. 
Now bring forward the pump center firmly and bind the 
knurled nuts down securely in position. By proceeding 
in this way you get the work centered absolutely, which 
could not be done otherwise if one jaw was open more than 
the others, which would allow the work to tilt, thus throw- 
ing the center of the work, when clamped to one side of 
the lathe center. In using the face plate to upright, fasten 
the two pieces together and mount the work as above, using 
the pointed center in the tailstock for locating the required 
point in the work. 



S2 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



Fig. 53 illustrates a live center with dog face plate. This 
attachment is intended for turning work between centers 
by means of a dog. The work is first centered and then 
center drilled to a 6o-degree angle, the same as the center. 
Centers should always be ground to a known angle, gen- 
erally 60 degrees, so that in drilling for centers, you can 
drill to the same angle, and thus have your work fit the 
cone instead of bearing on the point only. The work is 




Fig. 53. 

rotated by a dog clamped on the work, or by a stud bolted 
in the slot of the face plate. 

By substituting a female for the male center, Fig. 54, this 
attachment will be found useful in clock, music box and 
the heavier work having pivots, with which it is desirable to. 
have the other portions concentric. Female centers should 



Fig. 54. 

be cross-drilled, as shown in Fig. 54, so that they may be 
readily cleaned out, as dirt is liable to clog the point of the 
cone and interfere with the accuracy of the work if this 
point is not attended to. 

Where a workman is provided with a full set of accurate 
split chucks the dog face plate is of little real use, as the 
chuck will receive and drive any work that is small enough 
to go into the dog, while the other end is carried on the 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 83 

tail stock center, as it would be with the dog face plate in 
use. This face plate is really a survival of the machine- 
shop practice, in which the American watchmaker's lathe 
had its origin. There the work is entirely on rough cast- 
ings, as a rule, and the workman centers and dogs his work 
and then turns up his journal bearing at the tail stock cen- 
ter, turns the work in the lathe, puts the dog on the turned 
portion, and then proceeds with the work. The same 
method should be followed in using the dog face plate on 
the watchmaker's lathe, if the work is new, as it is the only 
practicable method of getting the centers accurately in line. 
Special attention should be paid to getting the tail stock 
center fitted snugly in the tail stock spindle; there should 
be no play in the tail stock spindle, or between the work 
and the center, as any looseness here would make a side 



Fig. 55. Fig. 56. 

shake while turning, so that the work would not be round 
when finished. For the same reason, the taper of the tail 
stock center and of the hole in the work should be the 
same, so that they will fit accurately as mentioned above. 
For repair work, however, it is generally sufficient to chuck 
the work in a split chuck, support the other end in the male 
or female center in the tail stock, and proceed as usual. If 
the work demands great accuracy, and the workman doubts 
his chucks, or if he has no chuck that will fit, the dog face 
plate is a necessary appliance. It requires great care, how- 
ever, in the fitting of centers, if accuracy is to be main- 
tained. 

There is one point on centers which it may be well to elab- 
orate here. A center, Figs. 55 and 56, is not parallel any- 
where on its surface. It is tapered in the shank, as well as 
on its working surface. This is done so that it shall fit 
snugly, for its entire length in the chuck or tail stock spin- 
dle. If the taper hole is not drilled at the same angle as 



84 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

that of the taper, it will not fit as intended. If the taper of 
the center is too great, the center will bear only at the 
mouth of the hole, and the back end being free, it will wab- 
ble when the tool exerts side pressure on the work. If the 
taper of the center be too small, the back end only will bear, 
and the taper will be free to wabble at the throat of the 
chuck or spindle in which it is used. Truth is impossible 
in either case, so the reader will see the importance of hav- 



Fig. 57. 

ing his tapers fit for the entire length, not only in the 
shank, but also in the work. 

Fig. 57 shows a four-jaw chuck mounted on a solid 
chuck and adapted to be used as a face plate, or machinist's 
chuck. It has jaws which are adjustable independently, so 
that work may be held out of center if desired. In such a 
case, the point to be centered is tested with a center in the 
tail stock, or by means of a pegwood on the T-rest, or the 
point of a slide-rest tool, if the slide rest is on. It is use- 
ful for the heavier kinds of work which are too thick to be 
held in the jaws of the face plate, such as a heavy piece of 
brass for making a barrel, or other work of that nature. 

Fig. 58 shows a Snyder bezel chuck, which differs from 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 85 

the others in that it is intended for a special class of work, 
as its name indicates. It will hold bezels, caps, etc., by 
either the inner or outer edge, and is extremely serviceable 
when working upon cases, removing solder or changing the 
groove in thin bezels, etc. The six jaws are operated 
simultaneously by rotating the milled ring which is seen at 
the back. There are several forms of this chuck, and they 




Fig. 58. 

are mounted on a solid chuck, as shown, and also upon a 
vStem, to be held in the largest size of split chuck. The lat- 
ter is done to effect a small saving in price, but the mount- 
ing is so much weaker that it is generally better to pay a 
dollar or two more and get the stronger form of mounting, 
as shown. This also holds true in regard to crown chucks. 
Figs. 59 and 60 illustrate the Gem pivoting chuck which 
is intended to do away with any necessity for wax by carry- 
ing auxiliary chucks for holding the work, as shown, spin- 
ning the work to center and then clamping the holder firmly 
in position. Its construction will be readily understood by 
a study of the illustrations. N shows a wheel in position 
for work on its pivot; G shows a staff chuck, M is the 
clamping ring of the holder, which is tightened after spin- 
ning the work to center; pressure on the ball is obtained 



S6 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



by rotating K, Fig. 60, which tightens the clamps C on the 
ball B, and holds the chuck, G, when it has been centered. 




Fig. 59. 




Fig. 60. 



Fig. 61 shows the Johanson Crown chuck. It consists 
of an adjustable center, C, with left-handed thread, a number 
of caps,.. A, with varying sizes of holes, to fit the various 
sizes of crowns, and the body, B, with right-hand thread 
for the caps, so that the center will not run down when the 
caps are screwed down to hold the crowns in place. This 
is a favorite form of crown chuck, if we may judge by the 
number sold ; it is mounted on a solid chuck, and also on 
the stem, as shown. 

We also show the Scholer Crown chuck, which is very 
similar to the other in principle. The crown is held in posi- 
tion by a small brass ring, as shown in the illustration, and 
it can be made to fit any size crown by using a few rings with 
different sized holes. A set of four rings accompanies each 
chuck, and one can easily make more if necessary. It hold? 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



87 





Fig. 61. The Johanson and Scholer Crown Chucks. 



the crown by the screw cap shown, which draws the brass 
ring against the crown, and thus retains it very firmly. This 
is also a popular form of crown chuck. 



CHAPTER V. 

CEMENT CHUCKS AND CEMENTING WORK IN POSITION. 

The cement chuck is the oldest form of chuck that is used 
in watchmaking. Previous to the invention of the split 
chuck it was the only known means of holding work that 
could not be hung between centers. It is generally utilized 
today by European watchmakers and while requiring con- 
siderable skill on the part of the workman before he can 
use it accurately and quickly, it will probably never be 
entirely displaced from the list of watchmaker's attachments 
on account of certain peculiar advantages inherent to its 
nature. For instance, the watchmaker who has learned to 
accurately center his work and to so manipulate his wax 
that it will not draw the work out of center while cooling, 
has at his command a means of holding his work which, 
although slow and troublesome, enables him to successfully 
handle, on an untrue lathe spindle, work demanding the 
finest accuracy. For work that is too thin to be success- 
fully held in a split chuck, cementing frequently offers the 
only practicable means. This is often the case with a very 
thin jewel setting; also when it is desired to lighten a 'scape 
wheel by turning % or grinding it thinner. In such a case the 
arms, teeth and rim are all held rigidly by the cement and 
there is much less danger of bending or stretching any part 
of the wheel than if it were held in a split chuck. Of course, 
if the steps are properly turned out, a 'scape wheel may 
be firmly held in a split chuck and we know that it is done 
every day ; but, for all that, the student should become con- 
versant with cementing his work in its various forms, as it 
may happen any time that he will get a piece of work which 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 89 

his chucks will not fit, particularly if he has just bought a 
lathe and only a few chucks; or if he has lost, broken or 
sprung the only chuck that will hold that particular piece 
of work, he will have to cement it, or wait till he can send 
and buy a chuck to replace the one that was lost or damaged. 

Cementing requires practice, on several accounts. First 
is skill in centering the work; it is not so easy as it looks 
when it is done by an old hand at the business. There is a 
knack in feeling when one end of a revolving staff is stand- 
ing still, or moving very slightly about the center; in one 
case the work is truly centered and in the other it is not and 
we believe that fully as much work is improperly centered 
in wax as there is in split chucks and always has been, not- 
withstanding the showers of abuse that have been hurled at 
the split chuck for years. 

The next point is the manipulation of the wax and this 
will vary according to the wax you are using. Probably 
half the trade use gum shellac. It is thin, easily applied 
on a large flat cement brass, or softened over a lamp and 
rolled into about the right size lump for a staff. It cools 
quickly and draws a good deal when cooling. It is the 
strongest cement and is easily and quickly dissolved when 
the finished work is boiled in alcohol. Pure sealing wax 
is also used; this does not have such a tendency to draw 
out of shape when cooling, as the coloring matter in it pre- 
vents it from shrinking so much. On the other hand, it is 
decidedly brittle and cannot be used over again for nearly 
as long a time and a chance blow or too great pressure of 
the graver will be liable to loosen it and let the work fall off 
the chuck. Many watchmakers use a mixture of half shel- 
lac and half sealing wax, melted together in a gentle heat, 
well stirred and run into sticks to cool. Many of the kinds 
of lathe wax sold by material dealers are mixtures of shellac 
and pitch with coloring matter added. The pitch, if in the 
right proportion, adds elasticity to the wax, so that it holds 
on under undue pressure and it can be used again repeat- 



9° 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



edly. Too much pitch makes the wax too soft and the work 
takes too long in cooling, as it hardens slowly when melted, 
while sealing wax hardens very quickly and is brittle when 
cold. From the above it will readily be seen that the work- 
man must get used to his wax, before he knows how hot 
to make it when chucking and how long to hold on when 
centering. 

Fig. 62 shows the screw chuck, which is generally part 
of the outfit which comes with the lathe at the time it is 




Fig. 62. 

purchased. With this screw chuck are sent a number of 
cement brasses having a thread cut on them to fit the thread 
in the screw chuck and these brasses are so cheap that 
they may be purchased by the dozen or singly in varying 
sizes from ^4 -inch up to 2^ inches, which is large enough 
to hold a watch plate and allow any Dart of it to be centered. 




Fig. < 



Fig. 64 



Fig. 65. 



Fig. 06. Fig. 67. 



Figs. 63, 64, 65, 66, and 67 show various sizes of these 
brasses after they have been put in the chuck and turned up 
true on the lathe by the watchmaker. The rings on the 
faces of the brasses are added as a guide in placing the 
wheel before spinning it to center. Fig. 67 shows a ^-inch 
cement brass turned down for small work and a hole drilled 
in the shank to insert a pin for use as a wrench when 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



9* 



screwing or unscrewing the brass from the chuck. This 
is often done in small brasses, while the larger ones offer 
sufficient hold for the hand so that a pin wrench is un- 
necessary. 




Fig. 68. 

- Fig. 68 shows a solid steel chuck which is of the form 
generally used in watch factories. It is ground true all 
over and the airhole is put in for two reasons; it enables 
the wax to cool quickly, thus saving time, and it prevents 
the heat from reaching the spindle of the lathe, which it 
would do if the chuck were constantly heated and cooled 
throughout a full day's work. This chuck has a general 
sale among watchmakers who believe in cement work and 
do much of it. 




Fig. 69. Wax or Cement Chuck, with Sliding Sleeve 




Fig. 70 : Wax or Cement Chuck with Sliding Sleeve and Air Hole. 

Figs. 69 and 70 show steel wax or cement chucks with 
a sliding sleeve. This is a device which is much admired 
by some and considered unnecessary by others. The wax 
will not harden as quickly within the sleeve and it is more 
apt to draw the work out of center when cooling, unless 
care is taken to see that the wax is evenly distributed all 
round the interior of the tube and that no air-bubbles get 



9 2 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



in. On the other hand, it is a decided protection to the 
work and is of assistance when using old wax that has be- 
come too brittle through repeated heating and cooling. 

Fig. 71 shows a steel taper chuck, with various forms 
of tapers. The taper blanks may be purchased, either hard 
or soft, at a low price, just as cement brasses are. Many 
watchmakers therefore use the tapers and taper chuck for 
cement work instead of the forms shown in Figs. 68, 69 and 
70. In fact, the latter are comparatively recent among re- 
pairers and we give the older method, although the special 
chucks have rendered it unnecessary. 





Fig. 



Taper Chuck with various forms of tapers. 



The first requisite is a true taper chuck ; and it is well to 
purchase an extra one to be used solely for this purpose, so 
that you will be prepared at all times for staff work. Select 
a good steel taper, and having placed your chuck in the 
lathe, see if your taper fits well by inserting it in the chuck 
while running slowly. If it fits well, it will be marked 
almost throughout its length. Insert again in the chuck, 
and with a few light taps of the hammer set it firmly in 
place, so that you know that there is no danger of its work- 
ing loose. The taper will then project about three-quarters 
of an inch from the face of the chuck. By means of a 
sharp graver, make the projecting surface of the taper 
smooth and straight, and cut off the taper end. Now with 
a long-pointed sharp graver proceed to cut a nice V-shaped 
center with an angle of about 6o°. The all-important point 
in the use of wax chucks is to get a perfect center. If yon 
are not careful you are liable to leave a small projection in 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 93 

the center as shown at Fig. 72. Care must be taken that 
the center is quite true, and that no projection is left like 
that illustrated in Fig. 72, no matter how minute it may be. 
After you have carefully centered your wax chuck and 
made sure there is no oil or grease on it to prevent the wax 
from adhering, place a small alcohol lamp under the chuck, 
add a sufficient amount of wax to imbed the work so that 



Fig. 72. 

it will be well covered, and heat it until the wax will just 
become fluid and yet not be hot enough to burn the wax. 
Revolve the lathe slowly and insert the staff so that the 
pivot rests squarely and firmly in the center. Now re-heat 
the chuck carefully in order that the wax may adhere 
firmly to the staff, keeping the lathe revolving meanwhile, 
but not so fast that the wax will be drawn from the center, 
and at the same time apply the forefinger to the end of the 
staff, as shown in Fig. 73, and gently press it squarely into 
place in the wax chuck. 




Fig. 73. 

The lines in Fig. 73 designate about the right amount of 
wax after the work is ready, but it is well to add a little 
more than is shown and you should be careful to keep the 
wax of equal bulk all around, or when it cools it will have 
a tendency to draw the staff to one side. Now remove the 
lamp and keep the lathe revolving until the wax is quite 
cool, when it should be removed, by means of a graver, 
down to the dimensions designated. When this is accom- 
plished re-heat a little, but only enough to make it soft, but 



94 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

not liquid, and placing a sharpened peg-wood on the tool 
rest proceed to the final truing up, by resting the pointed 
end against the hub, and rapidly or slowly revolving the 
lathe as the case may require. 

If it is desired to use the sleeve the procedure is as fol- 
lows : Mark a point on the taper about one-fourth of an 
inch from the end and proceed to turn down the diameter 
from this point to the end, leaving that portion of the taper 
about two-thirds of its original diameter, and finish with a 
nice square shoulder. Now with a long-pointed sharp 
graver proceed to cut a nice V-shaped center with an angle 
of about 6o°. When you have proceeded thus far you will 
find that you have an implement resembling that shown in 
Fig. 74- 



Fig. 74. 

Care must be taken that the center is quite true, and that 
no projection is left like that illustrated in Fig. 72, no mat- 
ter how minute it may be. Now examine the center by the 
aid of a strong glass, and after you are satisfied with its 
appearance proceed to test it. Take a large sized pin with 
a good point, and placing the point in the center, maintain 
it in position by pressing upon the head, and while revolving 
the lathe slowly proceed to examine by means of your glass. 
If the center is a good one there will be no perceptible 
vibration of the pin. 

Now procure a piece of small brass tubing with an inter- 
nal diameter a little less than that of the turned down por- 
tion of your taper. If the brass tubing cannot be procured 
readily, you can substitute a piece of brass wire a little 
larger than the taper, and by means of a drill a little smal- 
ler in diameter than the turned down portion you can readily 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 95 

make a small tube about one-half inch long. Now by 
means of a broach proceed to open the tube to a point one 
quarter inch from one end, and carefully fit it on the turned 
down portion of your taper. After fitting tightly to the 
shoulder of the taper, proceed to turn out the other end 
until it will take in the hub of your staff easily and leave a 
little room to spare. Now turn your tube down in length 
until a little of the hub is exposed either way you put the 
staff in. Turn the outside of the tube smooth and to corre- 
spond with the outline of the taper, so you will have a 
nice looking job when completed. Just below where the 
hub will come drill a small hole in the tube and remove all 
burr, both inside and out, that may have been made in drill- 
ing, so that the shellac or wax will not adhere to it. This 
little hole acts as an outlet for the air in the tube; and as 
the hot shellac enters at the end of the tube the air is ex- 
pelled through this vent. It also helps to hold the cement 
firmly in place. Now try your staff in the tube again, and 
be sure that it is quite free, and that, you will be able to 
work on the portions of it above and below the hub, accord- 
ing as one end or the other is inserted. 

You are now ready to insert your staff and proceed with 
your work. Hold your shellac in the flame of your lamp 
a moment until it is quite liquid, and then smear both the 
inside and outside of the tube with it. Heat the shell or 
tube gently by means of the lamp, keeping the lathe revolv- 
ing slowly all the while, and taking the staff in your tweez- 
ers proceed to insert it carefully into the tube. Press 
firmly back, making sure that it has reached the bottom of 
the V-shaped center. Pack the cement well in around the 
staff, and while centering remove the lamp and allow the 
wax to cool, keeping the lathe revolving until quite cool. 
Now remove the superfluous cement by means of the graver', 
and heating the tube again slightly, proceed to center the 
staff exactly by means of a pointed pegwood, resting on 
your T-rest to steady it. Turn slowly in the lathe and ex- 



9 6 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



amine with a glass to see that it is quite true. Your com- 
pleted instrument will resemble Fig. 75. It is well to em- 
ploy a taper chuck exclusively for this work, and not at- 
tempt to use it for any other, for if you try to remove your 
taper and replace it again, you will surely find that your 
work is out of center, and you will be compelled to remove 
the brass shell and find a new center each time you use it. 
You can avoid all this trouble, however, by purchasing an 
extra chuck and devoting it exclusively to wax work. Of 
course, the brass shell can be removed and placed in posi- 
tion again without in any way affecting the truth of the 
center, and any number, shape and size of shells can be 
made to fit the one taper, and these shells will be found 
very useful for holding a variety of work, aside from bal- 
ance staffs. 



Fig. 75. 

Flat pieces, such as wheels, are cemented by first heat- 
ing the cement brass, while revolving slowly, applying 
cement, and when it is sufficiently melted to spread evenly 
over the surface, owing to the centrifugal motion, apply 
the wheel or jewel setting, as the case may be, and spin 
to center with a peg wood in the hub of the wheel or either 
the outer rim or hole of the jewel as desired. If the outer 
rim and hole are concentric, either may be used ; if not the 
hole should be selected unless you are chucking the setting 
to take out a poor jewel, then of course the rim should be 
used. 

After finishing the work, it is taken off by again holding 
the flame of the lamp under the chuck and revolving it until 
the wax becomes fluid enough so that the work may be re- 
moved without bending it ; it is then placed in alcohol in 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



97 



a small metal pan, called a boiling-out pan, and held over 
the flame of the lamp until the wax has all been dissolved 
off the work. It is then taken out, clean and bright and 
dried either in an old cloth or in boxwood sawdust, or by 




Fig. 76. 

being held over the lamp until it is perfectly dry. In the 
boiling out care must be taken not to draw the temper or 
discolor the work from the heat, by proceeding too rapidly, 
as if the alcohol is allowed to boil there is danger of its 
boiling dry and leaving the work exposed before the work- 
man is aware of it and a hard staff will then be softened 
and discolored, so that it must be repolished. 



CHAPTER VI. 

CHUCKS FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES. 

There are many chucks for special purposes and whether 
they should be purchased or not depends largely upon the 
value of his time to the workman and this, of course, is de- 
cided by the amount of work he has to do and also how 
much work he has of the kind for which that particular 
chuck is intended. Where several workmen are employed 
in a shop and a number of them have similar lathes, then a 
number of these special tools, if purchased, may be used in 
common. In such cases, the shop may own the tools, and 
where this is done the lathes should always be identical, so 
that the purchase of a full set of tools and accessories for 
each lathe may be avoided. Of course, those chucks most in 
use should be provided for each lathe and where the work- 
man owns his tools he should endeavor to keep on buying 
until he has a full and complete outfit that will enable him to 
do quickly and properly everything he may be called upon 
to perform. The chief and almost the sole advantage of the 
American watchmaker over his European competitor lies in 
the speed with which his' tools enable him to do his work. 
This is what governs the earning power of the man at the 
bench, and it furnishes the only reason for the fact that the 
European watchmaker is working for from one-third to 
one-half of the amount generally earned by an American of 
no greater or even less skill. European watchmakers are 
constantly coming to nearly every large city in the United 
States. They secure positions in the larger repair shops, 
employing from ten to thirty workmen. They bring their 
tools with them and do work as they have been accustomed 

98 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 99 

to do it in Europe. This is not tolerated long ; the foreman 
notifies the newcomer that he is too slow and he finds that 
in order to accomplish what is considered a full day's work 
in that shop he must buy American tools and use American 
methods. He is allowed to retain his position because, as a 
rule, he knows more of the theory of watchmaking than the 
Americans employed in that shop; he is equally as rapid 
in fitting and adjusting and he has greater skill in shaping 
and finishing. So he is retained at wages corresponding to 
his output, as compared with that of the others in the shop, 
until he has learned to work with equal rapidity by acquir- 
ing a full set of American tools and becoming familiar with 
American methods. From this time on he is the equal and 
frequently the superior of his American fellow employes, 
and his earning power is equal to and often greater than 
that of those around him. 

This is being demonstrated every day in every large city 
in the United States and it furnishes the strongest possible 
argument for the superiority of the American tools and ap- 
pliances, as time savers. 

It is solely in this respect, we think, that the purchase of 
the numerous forms of special chucks should be considered ; 
if their use will occasionally increase the output of work to 
an amount equal to or beyond that of their cost, they should 
be considered a good investment and purchased accordingly, 
as time is the most expensive thing an employer of labor has 
to buy, and the vast trade in ready-made material from the 
factories has been built up solely on the ground that a busy 
man finds it cheaper to buy a staff qr pinion from the fac- 
tory or material dealer, than to pay a watchmaker for mak- 
ing it. It does not alter the value of this argument, either, to 
say that a proprietor of a store does his own work. In that 
case he is merely hiring himself to do work and he fre- 
quently does this when good business policy would suggest 
that he hire a cheaper man to do his watch repairing and 
use his own time in a way that would be more productive. 

Ufa 



IOO 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



Among the special chucks above referred to are a number 
that are especially contrived to hold the balance staff for 
pivoting without taking off the balance and roller table. 

Fig. J J illustrates such a device; it is called the Jumbo 




Fig. 



Jumbo Chuck. 



Chuck, and consists of a chamber having a central hole in 
front and a pump center at the back for the centering of the 
staff. The sides of the chamber are cut away to allow of 
the insertion of the balance and, when it is in position, with 




Fig. 78. Balance Chuck. 

one end projecting through the central hole and the other 
held by the pump center, a sliding cover is pushed forward 
so that the balance is completely inclosed and protected 
from accidental injury. Its construction will be readily un- 
derstood from the drawings. 

Fig. 78 is similar in principle, but the chamber is smaller, 
and cut away from one side far enough not to interfere 
with the balance arms, while the balance is not enclosed. 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



lOI 



Figs. 79 and 80 show two forms of cylinder chucks for 
turning the lower pivots on cylinders without wax. They 
are very convenient, and turn the pivot true with the cylin- 
der. Nos. 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 take all sizes, and the same 
chucks can also be used for staff work. These chucks are 
split and the work is placed in position by a rod inserted 
through the draw-in spindle as indicated in the Fig. 79 or 
from the recess shown in Fig. 80. The work is held in posi- 




Fig. 79. Cylinder Wire Chucks 



Fig. 



tion by the jaws of the split chuck when the draw-in spindle 
is tightened as in an ordinary wire chuck. 

Fig. 81 is a split chuck designed to hold a balance staff 
with roller table on, the roller pin going into the hole shown 
at one side of the center. Fig. 82 is an enlarged front view 
which shows the construction more clearly. Nos. 5, 5^, 6, 
6y 2 , 7, 7J4 constitute a set and will take all sizes of staffs. 
Fig. 83 is also designed for the same work, the hole being 




Fig. 81. 



Fig, 



Fig. 83. 



replaced by a circular groove for the reception of the roller 
pins. 

Fig. 84 shows a chuck for finishing the ends of screws. 
It. consists of a steel chuck with a threaded plug, on which 
are screwed recessed caps which, when screwed up tight, 
hold the screw by its head firmly against the end of the steel 
plug, as will be readily understood by a study of the illus- 
tration. Extra caps of brass or steel are supplied as desired. 



102 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

The soft-jeweling chuck, Fig. 85, is the same as is used 
for jeweling in all watch factories. This chuck is one ot 
the most useful in the watchmakers' outfit, as when the step 
wears out, or gets out of true, he can turn it down and true 
it up again himself, as the chuck is soft. 

This chuck is furnished with the step cut all ready for 
jeweling, or in the blank, ready for steps to be cut by the 
workman. Those who use this form of jeweling chucks 
generally prefer to cut the steps themselves. 




Fig. 84. Screw Finishing Chuck. 

Fig. 86 shows a true taper chuck for holding laps, etc., 
for truing up when they get out of round in use or need the 
shape changed for special purposes. The taper on the plug 
is made to coincide with that of the spindle of the pivot 
polisher, so that the laps may be firmly mounted and held 
and they are then trued up, either by turning in the lathe or 
grinding with another lap on the pivot polisher, or both. It 
is also useful for holding large laps for grinding and finish- 




Fig, 85. Jeweling Chuck of Soft Steel. 

ing flat steel work which is very hard and from which, for 
various reasons, it is not desirable to draw the temper. 
Much work can be done in this way, with the proper sizes 
and shapes of laps, at a considerable saving of time over 
the usual methods of flattening, graining and polishing steel 
by hand. This is especially true of repeating mechanism, 
with polished edges of the steel parts, etc. Diamantine can 
be safely used on the lathe in this way, provided that it is 
wet with oil, so that it will not fly about and care is taken to 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



keep it where it should be and wash up cleanly with oil 
after finishing the operation in which it is used. It is also 
a good plan to lay a cloth over the lathe bed and remove the 
hand rest, tail stock, etc., when using the lathe for grinding 
and finishing with large laps in this way. Those who be- 
come proficient in lapping their work with a proper assort- 
ment of varying thicknesses and shapes of laps will be sur- 
prised at the gain in time and the ease with which intricate 
curves and corners may be finished, at the same time keep- 
ing the edges and corners sharp. 

As to the laps they may be of soft iron, block tin, copper, 
brass, fine grained wood, ivory, or anything else that is 
softer than the work to be done, so that the pressure of the 
hard material to be worked will force the powder into the 




Fig. 86. True Taper Chuck 



softer lap, instead of allowing it to crumble and fly off; 
once forced or rolled into the lap, the material of which it 
is composed should be strong enough to retain its shape and 
the powder or other abrasive material imbedded in its sur- 
face, under light and steady pressure of the material to be 
ground. Copper answers these purposes admirably. This 
is the reason it is used for the very thin saws used in split- 
ting the hard iridium points of gold pens, as it has been 
found that a very thin copper disc, well charged with dia- 
mond powder will retain the powder and hence do effective 
work longer than any other material. On the other hand, 
copper is too soft to keep its shape under the greater pres- 
sure used in diamond cutting and polishing", so that iron 
gives better service under -the greater pressure. Tool makers 
working' very hard steel use laps made of lead, rolled up 
with emery ; where large surfaces are to be worked this 
makes a cheap and fast cutting lap, but it takes some skill 



IL>4 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

to keep it in shape, as the material is so soft. We think the 
above is sufficient to convey the idea to the reader ; he must 
obtain the rest by practice, taking care never to use the dif- 
ferent kinds and sizes of powder on the one lap, but to have 
a different lap for each powder and also for each size of 
that powder, otherwise he will find that the coarser particles 
sticking in the lap will make scratches when he tries to 
polish his work. As the laps in question are of such cheap 
material, and the watchmaker can make them himself, he 
can easily comply with the conditions set forth by making 
separate Taps as indicated for each grade of the powder he 
wishes to use. They should then be plainly marked and 
kept separated from each other when not in use. 

Fig. 87 shows a chuck with a wood screw and plate on 
which to chuck a piece of wood which it is desired to turn. 




Fig. 87. Wood Chuck. 

This is often convenient for many purposes m the jeweler's 
repair work and it is a very useful chuck. 

Fig. 88 is made with a tapered screw of coarse pitch on 
which to mount buffs for finishing watch cases, finger 
rings, etc. Where the watchmaker can afford it he should 
have a foot power polishing lathe on which his buffing 
should be done, as the flying powder gets all over the bench 
and into everything. Still in a pinch he may do buffing on 
his lathe by using the above chuck, but the practice is not 
recommended for the reasons given. 

Fig. 89 shows a chuck for holding stone settings. The 
body of the chuck is tapped to receive a screw which is 
passed through the setting and holds it in the chuck with 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



io 5 



its claws supported by the walls of the recess in the chuck. 
This enables the work to have the same depth and angle on 
each claw, so that the seat for the stone will be perfectly 
formed and the mounting is stronger than it would other- 
wise be. The groove may be cut in the claws with a graver 
or with a burr mounted on the pivot polisher, the latter 
method being preferable as it is quicker and more exact. 

We now come to the arbor chuck ; this is in many respects 
one of the most important forms of the chucks having solid 




Fig. 88. Buff Chuck. 

bodies ; its use has been gradually extending as the various 
attachments have been added to the lathe, until it is at pres- 
ent used for quite a variety of purposes. Fig. 90 shows the 
arbor chuck with screw of the arbor adapted for a pin 
wrench; Fig. 91 shows the same chuck opened that its action 
may be understood. This chuck is also made with a thumb 
screw if desired. Fig. 92 shows the arbor chuck with an 
elongated arbor. This arbor chuck has two collars for 
filling up the space, while using different widths of emery 




Fig. 89. Stone Setting Chuck. 

or oil stone wheels or saws. The collars at A, B are remov- 
able leaving a space of J^ inch if desired. 

Fig. 93 shows it as used to carry rounding-up cutters in 
conjunction with a wheel cutter, thus making it unnecessary 
to purchase a rounding-up tool, if one has the wheel-cutting 
attachment for his lathe. It is also used to carry fine steel 
circular saws, which will be found a great saving of time in 



io6 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



cutting out from the sheet the flat steel work used in 
watches and bringing the pieces nearly to shape before fil- 
ing or grinding to exact size, slitting screw heads, or saw- 
ing out the spaces between the teeth of steel pinions before 
beginning on them with the forming cutters. It is used to 
carry the cutters in wheel-cutting. It has latel- had extended 
use with the smaller sizes of carborundum wheels used by 
dentists, these wheels taking the place of hand-filing in 




Fig. 90. 




Fig. 91. 

finishing the steel work referred to above. Fig. 94 shows a 
special form of arbor chuck on which the wheel is carried 
on a loose pulley mounted on the arbor. In this method the 
lathe spindle stands still and the wheel is driven by a belt 
from the speed wheel on the countershaft running over the 
small-grooved pulley shown alongside the wheel in Fig. 94. 




Fig. 92. 

The increase in speed and consequent gain of time by this 
method is very considerable and it has the further advan- 
tage of giving sufficient peripheral speed to the wheel, so 
that it will not fill up with metal and refuse to cut. 

There is a proper speed for each grade or kind of manu- 
factured wheel; above this speed the heat is such that the 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



I07 



bond will be softened and then the wheel will either crumble 
or be burst by the centrifugal force. With large wheels 
bursting is always attended with considerable danger from 
the flying fragments, loss of life not being uncommon in 
such cases. Below the proper speed, or with too much pres- 
sure, the wheel will glaze over; that is, its surface will be- 




Fig. 93. 



come filled with fine particles of metal and cutting is de- 
layed or stopped until this is removed by turning down 
with a diamond, wasting the wheel and delaying the work. 
With large wheels it is easy to get a very high speed at the 




Fig. 94. 

circumference, and users have to be cautioned not to ex- 
ceed the safe speed of the wheel. With small wheels, on 
the contrary, the difficulty is generally found in getting a 
sufficient speed to prevent glazing, especially if used in the 
watchmakers' lathe spindle. In using such wheels the 
pressure should be light and intermittent — never put your 
work against the wheel and hold it there steadily, but take 
it away frequently and grind a little here and a little there 



ioS THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

until it is brought down to size. In this way you do not 
heat your work enough to discolor it, and you do not glaze 
your wheel. 

Emery, carborundum, and oil-stone wheels may be 
purchased of various shapes and sizes in grades sufficiently 
fine to do the work satisfactorily. We would recommend 
buying the first two in sufficient numbers to have a satis- 
factory assortment. Small circular oilstones are, however, 
almost prohibitory in price, while the large sizes intended 
for hand use are quite cheap. A stone 2^ or three inches 
wide by 8 or i o in length and the usual thickness may be 
purchased, cut into squares with a copper lap charged with 
diamond powder, chucked in the face plate and drilled to fit 
the arbor with a diamond turning tool, or with the end of a 
copper pipe charged with diamond powder. It is then 
mounted on the arbor, or the arbor-bushing as desired, 
turned into the desired shape and size with the diamond and 
we have a number of good and cheap oil stones of various 
grades, shapes and sizes. All the waste should be powdered, 
graded and bottled for use as oil-stone powder on laps, etc. 
It is desirable in doing this to buy as wide stones as pos- 
sible, as the difference in using a stone of large diameter as 
compared to that of a smaller one is surprising when we 
multiply the diameter by 3. 141 56, and that by the number 
of revolutions per minute, to get the peripheral speed. Stop 
a moment and figure it out to make the point clear to your- 
self. Assume a given number of revolutions which shall be 
the same with each size of stone and take two diameters of 
wheels well within the capacity of your lathe. 

These stones will also be found very useful in sharpen- 
ing gravers and slide-rest tools, especially if the finishing 
cut is made with the stone moving parallel to the edge of 
the graver instead of at right angles with it. The differ- 
ence will be very apparent in turning steel with gravers 
sharpened in each way, one leaving the work dull, the other 
bright, almost polished. 



CHAPTER VII. 

HAND RESTS AND SLIDE RESTS. 

The hand-rest, or T-rest, is that part of the lathe and its 
support upon which the graver is held when turning by 
hand. It consists of a slotted cylindrical post, mounted 
upon a base, bored to receive the stem of the rest and pro- 
vided with a screw to compress the sleeve at its upper end 
and thus hold the rest firmly in position. The base has a T- 
slot by which it is held in position by a T-bolt passing 
through the shoe and clamped by a nut under the lathe bed. 
Nos. 8, 9, 10, Fig. 1 6, show the T-rest standard, u the T- 
rest and 20 and 21 the clamping nut and washer. The T- 
rest is bent forward so that when turned sidewise it may be 
brought sufficiently close to the work without the standard 
catching in the work if it is large, such as a clock wheel, or 
the jaws of the face plate. T-rests are usually left soft, so 
that the graver will not slip, as it would do if the edge were 
hardened and polished. An old rest frequently has its up- 
per edge badly nicked by constant pressure of the angle of 
the graver bearing upon it. Some workmen who are on 
watchwork constantly, and are addicted to using gravers 
long after they should be sharpened, will file notches in the 
edge of the T-rest so that their dull tools will not slip, but 
it should not be done, as it seriously interferes with straight 
turning on longer work, such as clock arbors, barrels, wind- 
ing wheels, etc. A T-rest which has its upper edge filed level 
is plenty rough enough to hold a sharp graver and will allow 
of its being moved evenly and smoothly along when turn- 
ing straight arbors or flat work, while the nicked surface of 
the T-rest will show on the work if such practices are per- 
mitted. 

109 



IIO THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

For special work, such as making jewel settings, or other 
work requiring the rest to be very close, with frequent meas- 
urements or changes of work, a special form of rest, called 
the ''Tip-over T-rest," is in extensive use. Figs. 95 and 96 
show this device closed in position for work and swung out- 
ward and downward for measurement or removal of the 
work. It is in universal use in watch factory jeweling de- 
partments, and is also on the lathes of many retailers. It 
is supplied with all Hopkins lathes and on demand for the 
Moseley, Webster-Whitcomb and Rivett. Those who have 
tried it long enough to get used to it on any special work 




Fig. 95. Closed. Fig. 96. Open. 

endorse it heartily as a time saver, as it permits the rest to 
'go back to the same distance from the work every time and 
thus does not change the leverage on the graver, so that 
the same pressure of the hand will produce the same results 
on the work. A rapid workman is guided very largely by his 
sense of touch and the "feel" of the graver is kept exactly the 
same if the rest is maintained at a constant distance from 
the work. 

Some of the higher-priced Boley lathes have the standard 
for the T-rest formed of a split steel tube which is closely 
fitted on the outside by a loose clamping sleeve, so that it 
may be turned around at the will of the workman and thus 
placed so that the lever of the clamping screw will not inter- 
fere with any desired position of the T-rest. The split 
clamping collar conforms to the usual shape of the T-rest 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. Ill 

standard, so that no difference is noticeable unless the pieces 
are taken apart. This makes a very nice arrangement, but 
it is one which is seldom seen in this country, on account of 
the cost of making it. 

The lever of the clamping screw should be below the 
screw when the T-rest is clamped, as shown in Fig. 95, and 
they are so when new, but the screws stretch and w T ear with 
use until the lever comes up so as to interfere with the T- 
rest in some positions. When this is the case a steel washer 
should be placed between the collar and the head of the 
screw, having its thickness sufficient to bring the lever in 
the desired position when the sleeve is clamped. This stretch- 
ing never occurs with some workmen, while with others it 
is perceptible in a week after the purchase of the lathe. 
The reason is that the latter class use force enough to stretch 
the screw every time they adjust the T-rest. This is an 
abuse, of course, but it is a very common one. The stem of 
the T-rest should fit the standard so closely that a very 
slight pressure will hold it firmly ; if it is too small to do this 
throw it away and make another that will fit properly. 

The shoe should accurately fit the ways, or guides, of the 
bed, as the slide rest is fitted to the upper surface of the shoe 
and if the under surfaces do not hold the shoe at right angles 
to the line of centers of the lathe, the workman can never be " 
sure of what he is doing. This holds true also of all that 
class of attachments which are carried on the slide rest or in 
place of it, on the shoe, so that the width and fitting of this 
simple piece of the lathe are important. Those workmen 
who desire to use attachments made by one manufacturer 
upon a lathe made by another can do so by having a shoe 
made to fit the appliance which it is desired to add and in' 
this way they may obtain an amount of freedom in the 
choice of attachments that is very pleasing in some instances ; 
for example, where a bargain is offered in the way of at- 
tachments which the workman feels that he ought to have 
but cannot purchase of the manufacturer who made his lathe 



112 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

on account of the expense of new attachments. This change 
of shoe is usually made in its thickness, but may also be made 
in the width and sometimes in the length also. The top 
should be flat and the sides should fit the guides of slide rest, 
pivot polisher, etc., smoothly and without play. If the top 
is not flat the attachments placed upon it will rock when 
taking heavy cuts, thus causing a chattering of the tool 
which is attributed to lost motion, loose fitting, or springing 
of the slides of the slide rest, attachments, etc., when 
the real trouble lies in the imperfect support ofifered by an 
improperly fitting shoe. If the shoe is too narrow the slide 
rest may be put on square and shifted while working with- 
out the knowledge of the operator and thus turn taper when 
he wants the part straight and vice versa. It should be of 
equal thickness, as if one end is thicker than the other tools 
will rise above the center at one end of the slide rest and 
sink below it at the other. The sides should be square with 
the line of centers, as if they are not so, flat turning will be 
difficult when making wheels, plates, etc. 

In putting on the various tools, care should be taken to 
see that the ways of the bed, the top of the shoe and the 
T-bolt are all clean and free from dirt, filings or chips of 
metal, as a little dirt under the shoe, or between it and the 
slide rest will cause chattering as above alluded to. In wheel 
cutting or other work in which the attachments are built up 
quite high above the bed of the lathe, or at some distance 
from the line of centers, a very little imperfection in fastening 
to the ways of the bed will be multiplied into a serious error 
at the cutting edge of the tool. The readiest means of 
cleaning the lathe of chips, etc., is with a clean, dry bristle 
brush, which should be combed out whenever it becomes 
filled with turnings and dirt, and washed with soapsuds 
occasionally to free it from oil and keep it clean and soft. 

Although the work for which the lathe was designed is 
so short and small as to make its use as a speed lathe com- 
pulsory and to compel the majority of the work to be done 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 11^ 

with hand tools, still there is a large part of it for which 
the slide rest is demanded as a means of obtaining the 
necessary accuracy of direction in working at a commercial 
speed. In order to accomplish many of the functions of a 
machinists' engine lathe the slide rest is made so large as to 
be utterly out of proportion to those used with any other 
lathe. The lower slide is long enough so that when desired 
it may carry the edge of the tool away even further than 
the center distance of spindle to lathe bed. The middle slide 
is even longer, and its screw is designed to take the place 
of the lead screw which feeds the tool against the work in 
the engine lathe. In addition it has one, and sometimes two, 
swivels between the slides, which allow of turning tapers to 
predetermined angles, which are indicated by graduated 
circles which have the swivels as their centers. In the ma- 
chinists' lathes tapers are turned by setting the tailstock 
center away from the line of centers of the lathe ; but as the 
watchmaker's lathe makes comparatively little use of the 
tailstock on account of a majority of its work being so short, 
the taper turning is accomplished by swinging the slide 
rest. 

An inspection of the sectional drawings will show that 
the slides have their bearing surfaces between the various 
parts fully as wide and generally wider than the ways of 
the bed that supports the headstock. This is because the 
slide rest is designed to carry all sorts of attachments, such 
as wheel cutters, pivot polishers, rounding up tools, traverse 
spindle grinders and various other devices having working 
spindles placed as high as the line of centers and scmetimes 
two and a half to three inches to one side of it. Under these 
circumstances we have five bearing surfaces resting upon 
each other between the tool and the lathe bed, and at least 
three of these surfaces must be sufficiently loose to allow of 
their being moved evenly and smoothly by the feed screws 
as the necessities of the work demand. It will be seen, 
therefore, that these surfaces must be broad and closely 



114 TIIE AMERICAN LATHE. 

fitted, or the tool will spring and chatter to such an extent 
as to make good work impossible. If the fitting of the slides 
is badly done, so that they are loose at some portions of 
their travel and tight in others, then in addition to the 
springing w T e have the liability of the slide allowing the tool 
to dig into the w T ork if the tool happens to have too much 
top rake, or of allowing it to be pushed away if it be dull 
or the metal being turned is rather hard. In either case the 
work done will not be of the proper diameter, and it must 
be gone over again, losing time and perhaps spoiling the 
work. Many young workmen who have good slide rests 
think that they will save themselves labor and not wear the 
slides so much if they loosen the screws which hold the 
splines against the beveled surfaces of the slides. So they 
loosen up to where chattering is bound to occur, and then 
commence to find fault with their cutting tools, wonder why 
they won't keep an edge, change the angles of the cutting 
surfaces, try all sorts of patent hardening solutions and 
look everywhere else for their troubles, which will not dis- 
appear until they take the lost motion out of their slide rests. 
Slide rests will spring when they are closely and properly 
fitted, and this fact is well known to all machinists and also 
to many watchmakers. 

One day, in talking with a tool maker, he said that when 
he wanted to take a light cut he did it by springing the tool 
holder. If tools as heavily proportioned as those used by 
tool makers and others in the heavier classes of work can 
be sprung by a simple pressure of the hand, what are we to 
expect of the watchmaker's lathe, where the pressure, due 
to the handling, is much greater in proportion to the work- 
done than it is in the large lathes? Any one w T ho is at all 
skeptical in regard to this matter may easily try it for him- 
self by putting a piece in the chuck and with a keen cutting 
tool in the slide rest turn it down true and smooth, then, with 
the hand, press lightly on the side of the headstock so as to 
press the piece toward the tool ; also try it by pressing the 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. I I 5 

tool to the work, and I dare say it will be a surprise to those 
who have never tried this to know what a small pressure 
it will take to make a cut of sensible amount. This may 
also be tried in other ways which will suggest themselves to 
the workman, a good one being with the pivot polisher and 
the parallel grinder. 

Many of the slide rests are made with the graduated 
circle for cutting angles so small that it is impossible to cut 
any given angle with certainty and still more difficult to cut 
a taper, and then reset the slide rest again after it has been 
once changed, so as to conform to the first angle. Of 
course, the size to which this circle may be increased is 
necessarily limited, but the design in those not so con- 
structed should be changed so as to make this adjustment as 
accurate as possible. 

Another source of trouble lies in the fitting of the feed 
screws and their nuts. Some of the cheaper slide rests have 
the feed screws held in place only by a collar at the head 
of the screw. Where this is the case care should be taken 
to see that the collar fits the screw closely. They are some- 
times left loose by the manufacturer, so that if the nut in 
which the screw works is not in perfect alignment with the 
screw the screw may tilt as the nut approaches the inner end 
of the screw and thus prevent binding at that end. Then 
the play necessary in the collar will be enough to give some- 
times a quarter-turn of lost motion when the nut is between 
the center and outer end of the screw. This is a great 
nuisance to a workman who understands the capabilities of 
the slide rest. 

Such a man will have collars on the ends of his feed 
screws, graduated with reference to the thread of the screw, 
so that the slide may be advanced a definite amount by 
reading the collar as it is being turned. For instance, if it 
be twenty-five threads to the inch, then one turn of the 
screw will advance the slide one-twenty-fifth of an inch. 
If we divide our collar into forty parts, then one part equals 



Il6 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

one-fortieth of one-twenty-fifth, or one-thousandth of an 
inch. Metric threads will give metric divisions. Having 
got his work nearly to size, he callipers it closely, finds how 
much more is needed and then advances his slide one-half 
the distance, which brings the work to the proper diameter 
at the next cut. 

Now lost motion in the collar of the feed screw or be- 
tween the nut and screw will render it difficult to tell just 
when the slide starts moving and so make the depth of cut 
a matter of uncertainty in fine work, such as taking off two 
thousandths of an inch. If his slides and nut are loose the 
difficulty is not as great, but if they are closely fitted, as they 
should be in such work, he will sometimes be unable to tell 
just when the slide starts moving toward the work. 

Sometimes the screws which hold the nut to the slide 
are too small for the holes in the wing of the nut and allow 
it to move about. This is likely to happen when the work- 
man has taken his slide rest apart for cleaning and put it 
together carelessly. Lost motion will result in such a case, 
and if the nut be narrow tilting and consequent uneven wear 
of the nut will result. 

Loose handles on the feed screws are another nuisance, 
for which the workman is generally to blame, as they are 
caused by carelessness in allowing the screws to work loose, 
jamming against the bench or drawer, getting tangled up 
with other tools, etc. 

Fig. 97 shows the Moseley slide rest, which has two 
swivels, one of which is below both slides, and allows the 
first or long slide, when swung crosswise, to lie flat and 
firm upon the base, making it very solid, with no tendency to 
vibrate or chatter when cutting. The other swivel is be- 
tween the two slides, which allows a hole to be turned 
taper and the face to be squared flat, or vice versa — the face 
squared at an angle and the hole turned straight. They use 
in the long slides an improved detached nut, and the tool or 
cutter will not show ridges or grooves in the work at each 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 11^ 

revolution of the screw. The compound tool post is so ar- 
ranged that an ordinary square tool can be used, or by ap- 
plying the eccentric quill and clasp it will allow the use of 
tools made from round steel rod, which many workmen will 
eagerly adopt when familiar with its advantages. The feed 




Fig. 97. Moseley slide rest with two slides. 1. Base. 2, Lower Slide. 
3, 4, Center Swivel. 5, Upper Slide. 6, Tool Post Collar. 7, Tool Post. 
8, Binding Screw. 9, Gib. 10, Quill with Eccentric Hole. II, Tool. 
15, Lower Swivel Binding Screw. 



screws have graduated collars on the end of lead and cross 
screws, just inside of the handle, to read to thousandths of 
an inch. Half and quarter thousandths are easily obtained 
by dividing the spaces by the eye. This enables any one 
using gauges reading thousandths to readily adjust their 
tool to avoid mistakes in getting proper sizes, and is a 
great convenience and saving of time for any one using the 
rest. 

Fig. 98 shows a longitudinal section of the Webster- Whit- 
comb slide rest with three slides. This is also shown in 
elevation at Fig. 99. This has proven a very popular form 
of slide rest and has been imitated by a number of European 
tool makers. This is the form which is generally meant 
when an "imitation slide rest" is spoken of. It has one 
swivel between the lower and middle slides, which is clamped 



Ll8 



THE AMERICAN LATHK. 




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THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



II 9 



by a T bolt and eccentric in the same manner as the head or 
tail stock of a lathe is fastened. The slot for the tool post 
is placed parallel to and very close to the end of the upper 
slide, with the result that a very short tool may be used and 
still have the slide clear of the work. The slotted tool post 
is surrounded by a collar which is chamfered out to the arc 
of a circle, and the tool is carried upon a steel support, 
which forms a segment of the same circle. This allows the 
tool to be tilted at pleasure, while still being firmly held by 




Fig. 99. Webster- Whitcomb Slide Rest. 



the screw of the tool post. This arrangement is common to 
the majority of machine shops on account of the great lati- 
tude of adjustment with simple means. In the better class 
of slides the nut, which is threaded on the front ends of the 
lead screws, is divided in millimeters or thousandths of an 
inch, as previously referred to. Two handles are provided 
for the lower screws and milled head for the upper screw. 

In place of the rocking segment for adjusting the height 
of tool many workmen use two collars, one of which screws 
into the other, as shown in the sectional drawing of the 
Hopkins slide rest, Fig. 100. The advantage of this is that 
the tool may be elevated or depressed horizontally, so that 



120 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 




THE AMERICAN LATHE. 121 

the angles of the cutting edges of the tool are not changed 
at the point where they enter the work. Such a tool as is 
shown in Fig. 98 will alter its action materially under such 
conditions, and if it is sharpened on top the cutting edge 
will be lowered, making elevation necessary to reach the 
line of centers. The man with few tools prefers to alter the 
angle at the working point by tilting his tool to accommodate 
it to the varying qualities of metal, rather than make another 
tool with different cutting angles, while the man with plenty 
of tools contends that it is better to have an assortment of 
tools shaped properly for cutting the various hard and soft 




Fig. 101. Hopkins Slide Rest. 

metals and to present those tools to the work at known an- 
gles by properly forming the cutting edge and keeping the 
shank of the tools always horizontal. Every experienced 
lathe hand will admit the justice of the latter proposition and 
then resort to tilting the tool when he finds himself short of 
tools of the required shape. So, after all, it is a matter of 
personal liking or adjustment to circumstances. 

Fig. 100 shows a longitudinal section of the Hopkins 
slide rest, which is shown in elevation at Fig. 101. This is a 
two-slide rest, with swivel, H, between the slides. Unlike 
the other rests, this has its shoe formed on the base of the 
slide instead of fitting the shoe of the lathe. The tool post 
will hold either square or round tools, and the tool is elevated 
horizontally by rotating G after loosening B. The wide 
bearing of the round tool post gives a very firm fastening 
for the tool, and this is also an advantage in making a rigid 



] 22 



' THE AMERICAN LATHE. 




THE AMERICAN LATHE. 1 23 

fastening for the various attachments, which will be dis- 
cussed later. The tool may be taken out, sharpened and 
replaced without changing the angle or height. 

Figs. 102, 103 and 104 are longitudinal and cross sections 
and elevation of the Rivett slide rest. As will be seen from 
Fig. 102, the feed screws are journaled at both ends in this 
slide rest, the rear sleeves being adjustable to take up any 




Fig. 103. Cross Section of Rivett Slide Kest. A, Tool Post. B, Ele- 
vating Quill. C, Binding Screw of Tool Post Swivel. D, Binding Screw 
of Swivel between Slides, J, J, Splines, E, Tool. 



lost motion ; the swivels are conical and screwed into posi- 
tion ; the tool post covers the top of the upper slide and is 
swiveled in the center of the slide. The first feature which 
strikes us is the great care in fitting and the unusual strength 
of the slide rest. The bearing for the tool post is extremely 
wide ; the reason for such construction is made plain when 
we come to consider that all the attachments are held in the 



u 4 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 




THE AMERICAN LATHE. I 25 

slide rest and that the rest itself is used in a vertical instead 
of a horizontal position in many operations, under the Rivett 
system — in wheel cutting, for example. The large graduat- 
ed circle about the base of the tool holder, although unim- 
portant in ordinary watch repair work and plain turning, 
becomes extremely so when the tool holder is replaced by 
the pivot polisher, or the quill for traverse spindle grinder 
or the chuck for holding the work in wheel cutting. 

The quill for holding the tool is another device which has 
come to us from the watch factory. This is shown at B in 
Figs. 102 and 103 ; it consists of a steel cylinder, bored 
longitudinally to one side of the center and split so that com- 
pression will allow it to grip the tool, which is of round 
wire. Rotating the cylinder will raise or lower the height 
of the tool and as the tool is round, turning it will restore 
the cutting edge to its position after the height has been 
changed. Of course, the tool may be withdrawn and in- 
serted any number of times without changing its application 
to the work. In manufacturing this item is an important 
saving of time, particularly where the tools are cutting ten 
hours per day. In such cases the ability to cut off a piece 
of steel rod, grind the end to shape, harden and use it as a 
cutter effects an important saving as compared to the black- 
smith's work on tools of the ordinary shape. Of course, its 
importance diminishes as the volume of work decreases, but 
its convenience in the preparation of tools in a country 
jewelry store, for instance, where machine shops are scarce 
and dealers in machine steels are conspicuous by their ab- 
sence, is such that it is rapidly winning friends in the 
watchmaking trade, as round steel may be ordered from the 
material dealer and kept in stock. Then the making of 
cutters take only a few moments' time. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

VARIOUS FORMS OF TAILSTOCKS AND THEIR USES. 

The tailstock is a part of the watchmaker's lathe whose 
capabilities are but little understood by the average repairer 
of watches. Here and there we find one with factory ex- 
perience who has become an adept in their use, but the 
average watchmaker of ten or fifteen years' experience is 
apt to show you a lathe with the nickel all worn off the bed, 
the edges of the slide rest rounded from wear and the tail- 
stock as bright as if he had used it for six months. He will 
tell you that he does his drilling with a pin vise and that 
he only uses the tailstock occasionally to drill a long hole 
or on the rare occasions on which he has to swing work on 
centers. He only has the push-spindle tailstock and he 
doesn't see much use in it. On the other hand, if we go 
into a factory we shall find the tailstock in use more often 
than the slide rest, and the number of operations performed 
with it is surprising to the class of man referred to above, 
as is also the amount of work which is turned out. He will 
find the tailstock in so many forms, varying from the simple 
push spindle up to and including the automatic turret carry- 
ing a dozen tools, that he may well ask himself whether he 
cannot adopt some of these devices with the result-of greatei 
accuracy and speed. For the American is prone to run to 
extremes, and having discarded turning between centers 
— and accustomed himself to sneer at European methods as 
old-fashioned and slow, he wants to discard the tailstock 
altogether, and many do so to the detriment of their work 
and peace of mind. To the European watchmaker, with 
his greater knowledge of the business, brought about by a 

126 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. I 27 

long and arduous apprenticeship, it is more important to get 
a hole straight and of proper size than to get one quickly, 
and the tailstock is never absent from his bench. He gener- 
ally has two and frequently three of these useful appliances, 
and his tailstock spindles are fitted with all the appliances 
which have been presented for his consideration by the 
manufacturers and which on trial he has found useful. 

There are some advantages in having to learn your trade 
twice. The European watchmaker, on his native heath, has 
as large a percentage of botches as the American, probably, 
for human nature does not differ greatly between nations 
when considered in mass. But the man who has learned 
European methods, where the work is chiefly done looking 
to the right, and then come over here and learned to work 
with different tools and looking to the left, has had his wits 
exercised rather more than the man who has been content 
with one method — either one. 

The tailstock, while it was primarily devised to hold one 
end of the work in position, and while it is still used for that 
purpose chiefly in the engine lathe, has been developed into 
a tool-carrying device of great utility for work which can 
be held by one end. The majority of the watchmaker's work 
is of that description, and therefore the chief utility of his 
tailstock is as a tool carrier. We will therefore consider the 
various tailstocks in that connection. 

The tail stock usually found in the repairer's outfit is the 
push-spindle; it is shown in elevation in Fig. 16, and in 
longitudinal section in Fig. 21. As will be readily seen from 
Fig. 21, it consists of a casting shaped to fit the ways of the 
bed, provided with a T-bolt and eccentric for clamping and 
bored to receive a tube which should be accurately fitted to 
the spindle within it, and exactly in line with the center 
of the lathe spindle. Great pains is taken to preserve the 
truth of this alignment in the manufacture, as it is vital. 
In one of the factories this point is tested by locking four 
of these tail stocks, end to end, on a lathe bed and pushing 



128 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

a tail stock spindle clear through the four ; alternate tail 
stocks are then turned end for end and the test repeated. 
This is done before nickel plating; after nickeling it cannot 
be done with the first four tail stocks that may be picked 
up, although it may be done with two and sometimes with 
three, if they are selected. Only a skilled mechanic will un- 
derstand the severity of the test with four tail stocks and 
an accurately fitted spindle. Turning alternate tail stocks 
end-for-end doubles any error there may be in the alignment 
of the bore. 

The fitting of the spindle should also be carefully looked 
after, and this is done in the best makes. Cheaper lathes 
frequently have the bore of the tail stock smaller in the mid- 
dle than at the ends. Then, if the spindle is clamped at the 
front end, the spindle is thrown out of line by clamping. 
It will also be put out if the spindle fits too freely. Some- 
times we find a case in which the center is larger than the 
ends of the bore, and if such a lathe is put in the hands of 
a careless man, he will often clamp the spindle tightly 
enough to spring the spindle. The spindle should occupy 
practically the same position when loose or clamped and 
with either end of the tail stock next to the lathe head, as 
tested by putting a needle-pointed center in the tail stock 
and another in the arbor chuck in the lathe spindle, bring- 
ing the two together and revolving them slowly, under a 
strong glass, first in the same and then in opposite direc- 
tions. Of course care must be taken to center both needle 
points accurately before commencing. You may be sure of 
the practical efficiency of a tail stock which will stand this 
test. 

The spindle should fit closely enough so that it will not 
be thrown out of line by clamping, and if the workman can 
have several spindles for the same tail stock he will fre- 
quently find that it will save him a great deal of time, as 
they can be fitted with the tools he uses most frequently and 
the constant centering of such tools be thus avoided. If the 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. I 29 

tool mounted on any spindle be too large to pass through 
the tail stock, he may remove the rubber push button and in- 
sert the spindle from the forward end. 

The holes in the ends of all spindles should be of exactly 
the same size and taper and they should be cross-drilled at 
the extreme ends of the hole. All tapers should be of the 
same size and long enough to reach the cross-drilled hole. 
Then inserting a taper plug in the cross-drilled hole and tap- 
ping it slightly will at once start the tool out of its seat in 
the spindle, with no injury to the tool. This point should be 
insisted upon, as it is not only a saving of time and temper, 
but it prevents injury to delicate and expensive tools. The 
workman caught hammering a taper to loosen it in a ma- 
chine shop would be discharged if the superintendent had 
any pride in the condition of his tools, and if heavy engine 
lathes and radial drills suffer from such practices, how much 
more is the injury to watch tools, a drill chuck, for instance? 

One of the prominent lathe manufacturers sends out the 
following: "If the chuck comes to us true it will run true 
after mounting. Our liability ceases after it leaves the fac- 
tory. We guarantee nothing but the mounting/' This was 
made necessary by the tendency of workmen to clamp the 
spindle and twist a closely fitted taper out of the spindle with 
the fingers, or to place a screwdriver or file against the back 
of the chuck and drive it out with a hammer. There is no 
quicker way to impair the efficiency of such tools. 

If the workman is buying his centers he should try all of 
them for fit as soon as they are received, rejecting all which 
are long enough to close the hole, and also those which are 
not long enough to reach it. The former should then be 
turned off and the ends rounded so as to half close the cross- 
drilled hole when inserted in the spindle. The short ones 
must either be ground down to a proper fit, or returned to 
the dealer. In this connection it would be well to refer to 
our remarks on centers and their proper fitting in Chapter 
V. If the watchmaker prefers to make his own tapers, this 



I30 THE AMKRICIAN LATHE. 

is easily done by setting the slide-rest at a proper angle, 
putting a rod of steel in the chuck, and turning down the 
taper so that it will fit the conditions shown above. In doing 
this it will be best to round the ends and cut off the taper 
of the desired length with a hand graver, without disturbing 
the slide rest, as after once getting the slide rest set to the 
exact taper required for a perfect fit, it is not easily changed 
and reset again for every piece; for the same reason it is 
better to make up a number of them at once, as the time 
taken in getting the taper right is then done but once for a 
number of tapers. In thus making them for stock it is bet- 
ter to employ as large a rod as your largest chuck will take 
and to leave the unfinished ends long enough so that they 
may be formed into cutting tools, stems for mounting, or be 
drilled and taper ground to receive the ends of broaches, 



Fig. 105. Drill Socket. 

drills, reamers, etc., as shown in Fig. 105, thus making what 
the machinist calls a socket. In this case the taper holes 
should also be cross drilled as described at length for the 
spindles. By mounting a number of his tools in sockets, in 
this way a watchmaker may rapidly insert one tool after 
another in his tail stock spindle while swinging his work 
in the face plate or chuck, and the rapidity with which he can 
center, drill, broach and countersink when uprighting a pair 
of plates, for instance, is only limited by the number of tools 
which he has already mounted in sockets of uniform size, all 
ready to be put in or taken out of the push spindle of the 
tail stock as desired. Drilling with the push spindle keeps 
the hole straight and round and preserves the edges of the 
drill, as the pressure is only in the direction of the work to 
be done, while if the drill is held in the pin vise there is 
always more or less side pressure on the drill. Many 
watchmakers hold that in enlarging a cannon pinion, for in- 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



13 1 



stance, the drill is not so likely to be broken if held in the 
hand. Perhaps this is true, if the drill is not right, but not 
otherwise ; and many a pivot drill has been broken and its 
maker condemned when the real trouble was that it was 
broken by side pressure, caused by improper methods of 
holding. 

One of the most useful adjuncts to the push spindle tail 
stock is a series of drilling rests, Fig. io6, made of brass, 
of various sizes, and mounted on tapers as described above. 




Fig. 106. Drilling Rest. 

The advantage of using large stock for tapers will be seen 
here, as it permits a substantial shoulder to support the plate. 
In making them, mount heavy sheet brass in the face plate, 
face off, drill and cut out of the desired diameter, of course 
making the central hole small enough so that you can make 
a shoulder on your taper. Turn the shoulder straight and 
have the hole in the brass a little larger outside, so that the 




Fig. 107. Square Back Center. 

brass may be held by upsetting the end of the taper slightly. 
Face off and round the edges of the plate and it is done. 
They should vary in size from a quarter of an inch to two 
inches and will be found extremely convenient in holding 
work at right angles to a drill or other tool held in a chuck 
in the lathe spindle. 



! 32 



THE AMERICAN LATHE, 



Another extremely handy appliance is the square back 
center shown in Fig. 107, and the workman should have 
several of them for use in drilling round objects. Both 
these and the drill rests may be- purchased or made, as de- 
sired. 

Figs. 108, 109 and no show various forms of pivot drill 
chucks, on tapers to be used in the push spindle. They con- 
sist of a small split chuck with three jaws covered by a 




Fig. 110. 



Fig. 109. 

compression sleeve, as shown on a larger scale in Fig. in, 
in section, with the sleeve removed. Although very small, 
they are quite true if not abused, and if the watchmaker 
will make his drills on the lathe and sharpen them with the 
pivot polisher (as will be described later in the chapter on 
drills and drilling) so that the point of the drill is exactly 




Fig, 111. Enlarged Section of Pivot Drill Chuck. 

central with the shank, very excellent results will be ob- 
tained with drills held in this chuck in the push spindle. It 
is only of late years that machinists have concluded that 
they have not the skill to keep their drills accurately cen- 
tered when sharpening by hand, and they have introduced 
drill grinders for that purpose, as they have found that a few 
thousandths out of center seriously impairs the efficiency 
of the drill. How much more necessary, then, is truth 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 1 33 

where the entire diameter of the drill is only a few thou- 
sandths of an inch and it is to drill hard steel altogether. 
Pivot drills should always be put in a chuck and sharpened 
with the pivot polisher, so as to keep the point central. 

Sometimes a watchmaker decides to use two or three cf 
these drill chucks, in which case he orders the holes of dif- 
ferent sizes and sends a taper which exactly fits his push 
spindle, so that the chucks come to him true and accurately 
fitted. He then has a very convenient set of chucks for 
drilling, and if he will put all his drills in a split chuck 
and grind down the shanks to fit one or the other size of his 
drill chucks, he is doubly fitted. When the work is in the split 
chuck of the lathe, he can drill with the drill chuck in 
the push spindle of the tail stock ; when the work is out of 
the lathe he can still fit his drills in the split chuck and 
rest his work against the drilling plate in the tail stock 
spindle; and in either case he is "sure of a hole that is round 
and at right angles to the face of the work. 

Besides its use in centering and drilling, the tail stock is 
regularly used as a stop, or gauge, in cutting off pieces 
which are desired to be of the same length. In this case 
the slide rest is set so as to carry a parting tool close to the 
chuck in the lathe spindle, care being taken to set it as near- 
ly on the line of centers as can be, so as to leave as small a 
tit as possible when the piece which is being cut off falls 
from the bar. Measurement is taken by running the cut- 
ting edge of the tool up to the line of centers and bringing 
the tailstock spindle with a center or drill rest into position, 
so that the desired length may be measured between the 
back edge of the tool and the rest which is to serve as a 
stop. This is readily and quickly done by inserting a piece 
of the proper length between the back edge of the tool and 
the rest. The tailstock and spindle are then clamped in 
position and a rod of the material to be cut inserted in the 
chuck through the draw-in spindle, the end of the rod faced 
off, the tit removed with a file, graver or oil stone ; the rod 



1 34 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

is then pushed forward till it strikes the stop and the chuck 
clamped on it, when it may be cut off and the operation re- 
peated as often as desired. Ir doing this, many use as a 
stop a hollow or female center, a little smaller in diameter 
than the rod to be cut, but large enough so that if the end 
is not flat the tit will strike the hole in the center and not 
alter the length of the rod by preventing it being brought 
squarely to the stop. By paying attention to these points 
stock may be rapidly cut with practically no variation in 
length. By taking care to get a flat end every time before 
cutting off, the workman is sure of his lengths and the tit 
left on the other end is removed after the desired quantity 
of stock has been cut by putting the stepping device, Fig. 
44, in the draw-in spindle, putting the lengths of wire in the 




Fig. 112. Screw Tailstock. 

chuck, one at a time, and finishing the other ends. In doing 
this, it should be born in mind to place the stepping device 
so that enough of the piece may project from the chuck to 
allow it to be inserted and withdrawn easily from the front 
of the chuck, so that the step need not be moved after be- 
ing placed in position. 

Fig. H2 shows the screw tailstock. This differs from 
the push spindle in having a hollow spindle with a nut at 
its rear end and a spline or slot to keep it from revolving 
in the tailstock. The nut engages a screw, which is jour- 
naled at the rear end of the tailstock and enters the tube of 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



X 35 



the spindle. Turning the hand wheel on the rear end of the 
screw revolves the screw in the nut of the tailstock spindle 
and thus advances or retracts the spindle with a power pro- 
portioned to the pitch of the screw and the size of the hand 
wheel. The thumb screw shown in the center is used to 
clamp the spindle in position. The tailstock screw should 
be long enough to push the tool out of the spindle when it 
is drawn clear back, in which case a cross drilled hole in the 
spindle to remove the tool will be unnecessary. The taper 
hole for the reception of tools in the front end of the screw 
tailstock spindle should be of the same size and taper as that 
in the push spindle, so that the tools will fit either and thus 



Fig. 113. Half-Open Tailstock. 

avoid the duplication of tools, sockets, tapers, rests, etc. 
For large and heavy work, the screw tailstock is almost a 
necessity, as it allows very powerful pressure to be put on 
the work and avoids chattering, breaking of drills and 
glazing over in the bottom of the hole when drilling hard 
steel, and secures round, straight holes in thick brass clock 
frames, music box work, model making and the numerous 
other jobs, aside from watch work, which a watchmaker is 
often called upon to do. 

Fig. 113 is called a half-open tailstock. It is chiefly used 
in manufacturing, where the amount of work done is con- 
siderable, but not enough to make the purchase of a turret or 
automatic machine advisable. It is fitted with any number 



136 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

of spindles, each carrying a tool and having a clamp with 
a set screw clamped on it. This clamp is split at its lower 
end to engage a guide or steady pin inserted in the rear 
end of the tailstock. In practice these spindles are laid in a 
rack at the rear of the tailstock and are rapidly picked up, 
laid in the forks of the tailstock and run forward until the 
screw stop strikes the tailstock, when they are removed and 
the next in order substituted until the piece is completed. 
Drilling, boring, reaming, counterboring, chamfering, etc., 
are rapidly done with accuracy in this manner, and where 
the volume of work is considerable they will pay a profit 
on their cost. They are not a repairer's tool, however, be- 
f ^^ 



Fig. 114. Traverse Spindle Tailstock. 

ing designed as a substitute for a turret, with the advantage 
that any number of tools may be used without the loss of 
time that would be incurred in using a large turret with 
only a few tools in it. 

Fig. 114 is a traverse spindle tailstock, so called because 
the spindle, slides or traverses longitudinally while revolv- 
ing. It is about the finest drilling fixture made, consisting 
of a true spindle running in hardened steel bearings, in- 
serted in the tailstock and fitting so closely that while they 
work freely there is no play when the spindle is oiled. Like 
the preceding, it is a factory device. It was designed for 
drilling round straight holes ; the work revolving one way 
and the drill the other. Later it was found useful in pierc- 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



*37 



ing or opening and polishing the holes of jewels, as with 
jewel and drill or lap, both revolving at high speeds, much 
time was saved. It was frequently purchased by watch- 
makers who had to make a jewel occasionally and who also 
found it useful for drilling, but with the introduction of 
the pivot polisher and the quick facilities for ordering ma- 
terial by mail, its use has gradually fallen off. The pivot 
polisher offers a traverse spindle which may be moved about 
and used at various angles, and while it is not as strong as 
the tailstock, it can be used oftener. 

We now come to the jeweling caliper, or swing tailstock. 
This most useful tool should be in the hands of every jew- 
eler, as by its use much time is saved and a perfect fit is as- 
sured. It is scarcely necessary to point out that the upright- 
ing of the staff and consequently the depthing of wheels 
and pinions, depends to a very large extent upon perfectly 
centered hole jewels and perfectly fitting jewel settings, 
so that any lack of accuracy here will have a direct effect 
upon the performance of the watch. 

There is some doubt as to who invented this jeweling ap- 
pliance, although all agree that it was done about i860. It 
has been attributed to two men, N. B. Sherwood and E. 
Howard. Ambrose Webster credits it to E. Howard, of 
Dennison Howard & Davis, the proprietors of the first 
watch factory in America, afterward known as the Boston 
Watch Co., and now the American Waltham Watch Com- 
pany. This story has been widely copied, but we have 
never seen anything more than the assertion and both Mr. 
Howard and Mr. Webster are dead. Mr. E. A. Marsh, 
general superintendent of the company at present, says : "It 
has been understood in this factory for many years that it 
was invented or adapted by N. B. Sherwood. We feel that 
as originally made it was not designed for the setting of 
jewels, but for the opening of holes in the barrel, to fit the 
barrel arbor. It has been a matter of great regret with the 
writer that, contrary to his special orders, the original ma- 



1 3S THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

chine of this kind was destroyed ; it was intended to have 
it kept as a curiosity. This machine had an upright spin- 
dle, with an arm which swung out horizontally, the extrem- 
ity of which calipered the barrel arbor while the tool, mid- 
way of the length of the arm, was adapted to bore the hole 
in the barrel. ,, Mr. H. E. Duncan, at our request, under- 
took to reconcile these two stories, and after questioning 
all the old employes at Waltham, says : "But one man comes 
out strong on the question, P. McNamee, a jeweler. He 
states that the principle of the swing caliper was known 
and that the first one for jeweling was made about i860, 
in the machine shop of the company, by Deacon Farmer (he 
was a regular tool maker), and when done was put in his 
(McNamee's) hands and proved a big success. He also 
states that the end shaking tool was designed by Sherwood 
and the first one made under his supervision, and when 
done, came to McNamee to use and that was a success." 
This leaves the matter in doubt as to whether Howard in- 
vented the caliper for a different purpose, Sherwood adapted 
it and Farmer made it, or whether the credit of the initiative 
as regards its present use in jeweling should be given to 
Farmer. Sherwood is credited with its application in jew- 
eling in the "American Horological Journal," in 1872, while 
he himself, in "Watch and Chronometer Jeweling,'- which 
was written by Sherwood and first published in that paper, 
in serial form, in 1872, credits the invention of the swing 
rest to Mr. Howard and states that it can be applied in 
many ways. 

Its application depends upon the fact that angular meas- 
urement, considered with reference to linear measure, is a 
variable quantity, and thus the actual size in inches or meters 
of a given angle depends upon how far from the center that 
distance is taken. This will be made clear if we will place 
a watch dial over the center of, say, a ten-inch clock dial, so 
that all figures will be in line with each other and the center 
when a rule or straight edge is laid over them. The minute 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



l 39 



in each instance equals 360 degrees divided by 60 or six de- 
grees, while the hours equal 360 degrees, divided by 12, or 
30 degrees ; yet the sizes of the minutes and hours on the 
clock dial are many times those of the watch, if we measure 
them with a rule. The student should try experiments 
enough to 'get this idea of the variation in actual size of a 
given angle thoroughly into his comprehension, as it will 
aid him greatly in studying wheel cutting, escapements and 
all other constantly recurring divisions of circular or angular 
measure. The next thing to bear in mind is that a tool in 
the lathe will cut a circle of twice its distance from the cen- 
ter ; thus a tool half an inch from the center will cut a circle 
one inch in diameter, etc. Now if we place our tool with 
its cutting edge at the center of the lathe and extend the 
arm which carries the tool far enough above the tool, then 
we can find a place on that arm sufficiently far from the 
center so that the actual size of the angle will measure twice 
the distance we moved the tool, just as we can make a clock 
dial with minutes twice the size of those on a watch. Hav- 
ing found this distance from the center and placed a stop 
there to measure against, then any objects placed between 
the stop and the arm carrying the tool will move the tool 
one-half the distance from the line of centers and conse- 
quently cut a circle of the size of the object held between 
the arm and the stop. 

This will be more plainly understood by reference to Fig. 
115, where AB is the line of centers and AG the center 
of the swinging arm ; C the lathe center ; D the tool, carried 
on the arm AG; F the jewel, whose seat is to be cut in the 
setting. It will be seen that by moving the stop E up or 
down on the arm which carries it (not shown here), we can 
adjust the size of the angle to keep the cutting edge of the 
tool where it should be, although it wears away as we 
sharpen it. We can also advance or retract the stop E with 
reference to the line of centers, AB, by screws at the back 
of E. If we provide a number of these stops, side by side, 



140 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



we can have one to cut the opening through the setting, one 
for the counter sink to hold the jewel and form its seat, 
and one for the outside diameter of the jewel setting. Then 
if we have cutting edges on the end and both sides of our 
tool, we can pierce our hole, cut the jewel seat, burnish it 
in and cut the outside of the proper diameter at one opera- 
tion with one tool. This is not often done, however, as it 
is better practice to use separate cutters, each mounted in 
separate push spindles, as a tool with three cutting edges 
must be sharpened on top and soon wears too small to be 
of service, so that separate cutters for the different opera- 




Fig. 115. 

tions are better. For this reason, several of the manufac- 
turers provide but two of the stops E on their swing tail- 
stocks, although others make three, as stated above. 

The tools are best made from round steel, with shank 
ground to fit the hole in the push spindle, cut off, chucked 
and filed down to center with the filing rest set level, and 
with the index pin at zero in the lathe head, then turned 
over a stated number of degrees, say to the eighteenth hole, 
and sufficient clearance given on the cutting edge to just 
clear the smallest circle it is intended to cut; file the front 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



I 4 I 



edge straight and give clearance to the other, so it will enter 
the hole ; harden and then smooth the edges with a fine oil 
stone or with a lap on the pivot polisher. The tools should 
be as hard as possible without being brittle, as they will hold 
the cutting edge longer and thus make frequent adjust- 
ments unnecessary. The smoother you make your cutting 
edges the brighter your work will be, and the longer your 
tools will last if they are of the proper temper. This can 
be easily done by lapping and polishing with the lap set 




Fig. 116. Moseley Swing Tailstock. l,Base; 2, Standard Carrying 
Stops; 4, Swinging Arm Carrying Spindle; 7, 8, Clamp and Set Screw 
for depth of cut : 9, Spindle; 10, steady Pin ; 13, 14, Nut and Clamp for 
Feedscrew; removing 14 allows arm to drop forward ; 17, 18, Stops or 
Gauges between which jewel or setting is placed; IS may be adjusted 
by rear screws 19 ; 20, Pivot on which arm swings. 

so that its motion is parallel to the cutting edges of the tools. 
If the polishing is finished with Vienna lime and oil under a 
strong glass, so as to get a finely polished and very sharp 
edge, -the work done by the tool will surprise you with its 
beauty. After making, the tool is sharpened on the end 
only, as all the cutting is done on the end, the tool being al- 
ways held at right angles to the work by the spindle. 

The use of the pivot polisher with its various laps, in tool 
making, is little understood and deserves more attention by 



M 2 THE AMERICIAN LATHE. 

watchmakers generally. By using round steel and setting 
the index pin at zero, you can file your top flat, with the 
filing fixture set level ; then you can turn your lathe spindle 
and pin it again at a stated number of holes in the lathe 
head, and you can thus give a known angle of clearance to 
the cutting edge of the tool. After hardening you can in- 
sert the tool in the chuck again and grind to "exactly the 
same angle any number of times by using the same holes in 
the index head and the same angle on the pivot polisher ev- 
ery time. In this way you always know what you are doing 
and your tool will always cut the same way. " Few watch- 
makers use their tools hard, enough for the best work, and 




Fig. 117. Hopkins Swing Tailstock. 

they do not polish their cutting edges because it is too much 
trouble with a hard tool. A touch or two with a good lap 
will do the business in a moment, and by working to known 
angles of cutting edges and clearance it is no trouble to set 
the lathe head and pivot polisher to do the business perfectly 
and quickly. The laps will wear so long that their cost need 
not be taken into consideration, as you can make them your- 
self. This applies to tools used in the slide rest as well as 
to those for the tailstock. 

Fig. 116 shows the Moseley swing tailstock, while Fig. 
117 shows the Hopkins, the latter having a straight arm 
to carry the stops, while that of the Moseley is curved. 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



f 43 



This tailstock is made by all manufacturers of lathes, there 
being minor differences in each make, but all work on the 
same principles, as already explained at length. The watch- 
maker should buy the one which fits his lathe, as then his 
tapers and push spindles will be all alike, or should be, and 
he thus saves the duplication of tools. Do not buy an imita- 
tion tailstock unless you have an imitation lathe, for the 
reasons just given. Two spindles should be ordered, so 
tkat one may be kept ready for jeweling and the other for 
general work, and it should be insisted upon that the spindles 
be interchangeable with those of the ordinary tailstock for 
your lathe. 




Fig. 118. The Clement Swing Tailstock. 

Fig. 118 shows the Clement swing tailstock, which is the 
latest development of the tailstock, as a tool carrier for 
watchmakers. It is made to fit any make of lathe and con- 
sists of a base pivoted on a shoe, which fits the lathe bed. 
The rear end of the base is graduated so that it may be set 
to known angles and returned to line by inserting a taper pin 
at the rear. The spindle is pushed or may be fed by a 
screw and both screw and steady pins are graduated so that 
exact depthings may be obtained. There is but one spin- 
dle and it is adapted to carry any number of tools, such as 



144 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

filing fixtures, pivot polisher, cutters, etc. The figure shows 
outside and inside cutters, 7 and 8, in the spindle, 7 being 
brought into line by the adjusting screw 4. The pivot 
polisher is shown below, detached. A socket is furnished to 
fit the tools of the ordinary tailstock. The attachment for 
turret tools is very ingenious and simple, and is capable of 
further development along the same lines, so as to replace 
many of the other fixtures which now come with this at- 
tachment. We have no doubt that this will be done. The 
tailstock has three stops instead of two, and a right and left 
thread on the swing feed screw, thus giving a rapid swing 
which may be further increased by disconnecting the feed 
and swinging by hand. The clamp and right and left screw 
for the spindle feed is graduated to thousandths of an inch 
and allows it to be used as a push or screw tailstock in place 
of the regular tailstocks for the lathe, as well as giving it a 
rapid feed for cutting tools. The fixtures are so many that 
they cannot be illustrated here for want of space, besides 
which the tool is so new that they are constantly being 
changed and added to. The workmanship is first-class 
upon all of these tools which we have seen and the new at- 
tachment is being purchased very largely by those in the 
trade who are not already provided with the separate tools 
for which this attachment is designed as a substitute. 

The swing tailstock is used principally for boring, open- 
ing barrels to fit arbors, opening wheels to fit pinions, open- 
ing plates to fit jewel settings and opening settings to fit 
jewels when mounting them. It is simple and efficient in 
its action and when properly set will measure correctly any 
object that is placed between the stops, and cut a sink of the 
same diameter. There are several points that should be ob- 
served in its use. First, the cutters that go in the spindle 
should be cut exactly in half; that is, they should be filed 
exactly to the center. To find the exact center, turn the 
steel to a point ; file it flat until the point is reached, taking 
care not to go any further, by using your filing fixture set 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



H5 



level and at the proper height. Then turn your piece in 
the chuck one-quarter round and three spaces by, for clear- 
ance. If you started with the index pin at zero, this will 
bring you to the eighteenth hole. File the front edge 
straight and reduce it in size as much as is necessary for the 
size of hole it is intended to cut. Then shape it ; the shape 
is just the same as if it was intended to go in a slide rest 
for the same purpose, perfectly straight on its front side 
and end, the other side of a size and shape to go into the 
sink it is intended to cut. Temper and polish as previously 
described. The object in filing the cutting tool perfectly 
straight on its front side is so as not to change the cutting 
angles, as the cutter is sharpened square with the side and 
only on its end, never on the side, after it is first done. To 
adjust the cutter, put on the universal head or face plate; 
put the cutter in the push spindle and the spindle in the 
swing tailstock ; put the latter on the lathe close to the face 
pfate; then adjust one stop or finger so that when the arm 
is brought against it the front edge of the cutter will be 
exactly in line with the point of the pump center in the face 
plate or universal head ; turn the lathe slowly, to see if your 
face plate is on true ; if so the point of the pump center will 
not change its position. To prove that the cutter is in the 
correct position, put a piece of brass wire in your chuck 
and drill a hole in it; then take a jewel, place it against the 
stop which you have adjusted and press the swinging arm 
back against it; push the spindle forward and cut your 
sink. If the sink is too large for the jewel the swing stands 
too far forward and the stop, or finger, must be turned back 
a trifle ; if the sink is too small, the stop is too far back and 
should be set forward ; when the exact size is reached, fast- 
en the stop in position by the screw. This ensures exactness 
in future operations without resetting every time it is used. 
The hole under the stop is used for many purposes. If we 
are opening a wheel, we place the pinion in the hole, bring 
up the arm, push forward the spindle, and the hole in the 



I46 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

wheel is the exact size to be staked on the pinion ; so also 
with the barrel arbor or any other object, such as the screw 
head. 

The swing tailstock is often used in the place of the 
slide rest, in facing off, turning barrels, etc., but un- 
less you have the Clement, which is designed expressly 
for that purpose, it should not be done, as a rule. When 
taking a light cut, the cutter can be swung around quickly, 
but there is always danger of the cutter catching or break- 
ing unless care is used. If you have no slide rest, you 
can use the swing with a heavier cutter in the spindle than 
you can use for jeweling, but it is well to make haste slowly 
until you are used to handling the tool in this manner. 
The Clement is stronger, has a longer support for the spin- 
dle, and the spindle is heavier, so that the tool is more 
firmly held. It has been tried and found very satisfactory 
to those who have no slide rest. 



CHAPTER IX. 

CUTTERS, DRILLS, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM. 

How to make proper tools and keep them in order is one 
of the most important questions which occur to the every- 
day mechanic. Having good tools alone is not sufficient for 
a thorough mechanic ; he should possess a thorough knowl- 
edge of the principles upon which they are formed ; then 
he can keep them in order, and, should occasion demand it, 
he can make his own tools or a tool for a special job, so as 
to get the best results. 

In addition to a knowledge of the underlying principles 
may be included that of setting the tool in position and 
guiding it to get the best results. The requisite skill neces- 
sary to sharpen and set a tool correctly is only acquired by 
long experience, and this knowledge, when acquired, is 
highly valued. A poorly ground tool may be used by a 
skiilful man, because his experience has taught him how to 
place it so as to make it cut ; that is, how to present the cut- 
ting edge to the work in such a way that it will form the 
proper angle with the work. While the setting of the 
tool may, in many cases, be slightly modified to compensate 
for an improperly formed cutting edge, it should be the aim 
of the workman to always form his tools with correct angles. 

Of all the operations requiring the use of cutting tools, 
there is none which is accomplished with the same accuracy 
and rapidity as that of turning, the tool being held by the 
hand or in a fixture made for that purpose and presented 
to the work while it is revolving in the lathe, so that the 
cutting is continuous. 

147 



I4§ THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

However, all that can be expected from even the finest 
lathe is that it will revolve the work with the least amount 
of variation possible while the tool is traversing the work. 
No machine, however costly or elaborate, can produce fine 
or accurate work if the cutting tools are poorly made or 
improperly applied, and it is for this reason that the watch- 
maker should give that care to both the quality and form 
of the tool which its importance demands. When any 
man has thoroughly mastered the principles underlying the 
formation and use of lathe tools, he will have no difficulty in 
making any special tool that may be required, for these prin- 
ciples will apply equally well to any other metal cutting tool. 

Lathe tools are divided into two principal classes, viz. : 
hand tools and slide rest tools, both classes being made of a 
special grade of steel known as tool steel. 

To the watchmaker hand tools are known as gravers. 
When using a graver it is not so important that an exact 
angle should be obtained when sharpening it as in a slide 
rest tool, for, in the former, the hand is at once able to de- 
tect if the graver is not properly cutting and with the range 
of adjustment possible the operator can at once place the 
cutting edge in such a position that it will cut smoothly, 
while in the slide rest tool the same extent of adjustment 
is not possible, and we have not the delicacy of touch to 
guide us, so that the condition the surface of the work is 
left in and the appearance of the shaving of metal as it 
comes from the tool will form our best guide from which 
to judge if the tool is cutting properly. The tool should 
leave the surface so smooth as to almost have the appearance 
of having been polished, but, of course, much will depend 
upon the coarseness or fineness of the feed and the form 
of the tool as well. The cutting should come away from 
the tool in the form of a spiral with a clean cut, lively ap- 
pearance, the length of the spiral being more or less long 
according to the condition of the metal being operated upon 
castings giving shorter and more broken shavings than 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. I49 

rolled or drawn metal. Should the tool be dull or not of the 
correct form, the work will be left rough and the cutting will 
not be in a spiral, but will be in numberless short pieces, 
will have a sort of dragging, dead appearance, and will 
come away with a harsh grating sound. 

The old adage that "a workman is known by his chips," 
was never more true than when applied to the cutting of 
metals. The edge of a tool can affect the surface upon 
which it acts in two different ways, depending entirely upon 
the angles of the tool relative to the surface of the work. 
These are cutting and scraping. The angle of the edge 
of a tool must be more or less acute to form a cutting tool ; 
that is, so that the edge of the tool will penetrate below 
the surface and remove a quantity of the metal. In other 
words, the cutting tool is a wedge which is used to separate 
a portion of the metal, by pressing the point or edge of the 
wedge into it. In scraping, the tool is presented in such a 
way that it cannot penetrate, thus removing but a small 
amount of metal at a time. In order to make them cut, all 
tools must have what is known as clearance, or sometimes, 
as the angle of relief. This is necessary that the portion 
of the tool back of the cutting edge will not drag or rub on 
the work, which would prevent the cutting edge from enter- 
ing the metal. The amount of clearance should always be 
the smallest amount possible to give a free cutting tool, as 
by so doing we leave the metal of the tool just back of the 
cutting edge, where it is in the best possible position to sup- 
port and strengthen the edge, which is doing the work. To 
make a tool cut, it is given an incline on its face which is 
known as rake, and a tool is made more or less keen by 
giving it more or less rake; in other words, by making the 
cutting angle of our wedge more or less acute. There are 
two kinds of rake, viz : positive and negative rake, but since 
the positive rake is more often used it is spoken of merely 
as rake, and if negative rake is meant it is spoken of as such. 



T50 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

Fig. 119 represents a tool which is properly formed and 
presented to the work where A is the tool and B the work, 
while C shows the shaving or chip. It will be noticed that 
the chip comes away in the form of a long spiral, which is a 
good guide by which to judge the cutting qualities of the 
tool. The rake of the tool shown in Fig. 119 is positive, 
the angle of the cutting edge being acute, while that of the 
tool in Fig. 121 is negative, this angle being obtuse. A tool 
in which the top face is straight, that is, level with the center 
of the lathe, is spoken of as having no rake. In turning 
brass a tool is used which has either no rake or negative 
rake, as from the nature of this metal a keen cutting tool is 
very liable to gouge or dig into the w r ork. The strain upon 




Fig. 119. 

the top face of the tool is not that alone due to the actual 
severing of the metal, but also that of bending the metal 
after it has been severed. This strain, of course, varies with 
the depth of cut and the amount of rake given to the tool. 
The greater the rake the less this strain is. The bending 
of the severed metal produces a strain in such a direction as 
would cause it to spring into the work, and so take a heavier 
cut than intended, unless the tool is made strong enough 
to resist this strain and prevent springing. A tool which 
is to be used to take a light cut may be made with very acute 
angles at the cutting edge, but one which is to be used on 
heavy work must be made less acute on account of its being 
too weak, if too acute, so that it will spring and gouge into 
the work. 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



The form of a cutting tool is simply that of a wedge, 
which is forced into the material for the purpose of sep- 
arating a portion of it from the main body. The thinner 
this wedge is the less is the power required to drive it in. 
The tool or material should be driven at the speed which is 
the most effective, so that the work will be accomplished in 
the shortest time. The speed is only limited by the heating 
and softening of the cutting edge, due to the friction. The 
heat which is generated at the point of the tool, when cut- 
ting, is eliminated by being conducted to the body of the 
tool, and from this to the surrounding air by radiation. The 




Fig. 120. 

tool which is to be used for heavy cuts, such as a machinist 
would have to take, must have sufficient metal in it near the 
cutting edge to resist the heating and consequent softening, 
so that the heat may be carried away rapidly. When taking 
a heavy cut, a liquid of some kind is employed, usually either 
oil or water, to assist in carrying away this heat. The thin- 
ner edged tool cuts easiest, not because there is less friction, 
but because the metal is distorted less in its removal. Both 
the tool and the work must in all cases be as rigid as possible, 
so that there will be the least possible vibration. The edge 
of the tool must be made very keen to prevent it from slip- 
ping over the surface, this precaution being especially neces- 
sary when turning tempered steel. 

Those tools which are used in the slide rest, may be sub- 
divided into two classes, outside or external and inside or 



15- THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

boring tools. They are still further designated, either from 
the nature of the work they perform or some characteristic 
of the tools themselves. Thus, a front tool is one that has 
its cutting edge in front; a side tool is one that cuts on 
the side ; a cutting off tool one that is used for that purpose, 
etc. 

When making a tool for any purpose it is necessary that 
it be left as strong as possible, yet sufficiently keen to make a 
smooth and clean cut. Fig. 120 shows a tool with the 
various angles. The angle the cutting face A makes to the 
perpendicular line B is called top rake, while the difference 
between the line B and C is called the clearance. D and E 
represent the top and bottom faces of the tool respectively. 

In Fig. 122, which has excessive rake and small clear- 




Fig. 121 Fig. 122. 

ance, it is obvious that the shaving will not meet with the 
same resistance as it would in Fig. 120. A tool could be 
made so keen, as shown in Fig. 122, that a light shaving 
would come off almost straight, but such a tool would be 
very weak and soon become dull, because there is not metal 
enough to rapidly convey the heat from the cutting edge; 
but there are times when such a tool can be used to ad- 
vantage, such as in cutting soft, tough metal that has a ten- 
dency to stick or weld itself to the edge of the tool, as do 
copper and aluminum. When turning, either of these 
metals, the tools may be supplied with a small amount of 
oil, or kept moist with water, to enable them to make a 
smooth cut. The strain upon the tool is downward and 
forward, so that if the body of the tool is slight, or it stands 
so far out from the tool post as to be unable to withstand 
v .he pressure due to the cut, without springing, it will spring 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



753 



into the cut, using the point of least resistance in the tool 
or the tool post as a fulcrum, but if the tool is so formed 
that the top of the cutting edge is below the top of the body 
of the tool, a pressure sufficient to spring the tool would 
cause it to leave the cut, which, of course, would reduce 
the depth of the cut. In all cases, the tool should not extend 
beyond the tool post more than is necessary to well clear 
the work, as it is thus subject to a less amount of spring. 




Fig. 123. Slide Rest Tools. No. 1, Boring Tool; No. 2, Centering Tool; 

No 3, Side Tool; No. 4, Smoothing Tool; No. 5, Turning Tool; 

No. 6, Round-Nosed Tool; No. 7, Thread Cutting Tool; 

No. 8, Parting or Cutting-ofE Tool. 

Fig. 123 shows the usual shapes of cutting tools for use in 
the slide rest. These are the same as those usually em- 
ployed for similar purposes in the machine shop, and the 
workman will find it convenient to have several sets of vary- 
ing sizes and different angles of top rake and clearance so 
as to be prepared for cutting various grades of metal. These 
may be made of bar steel, either round or square section as 
desired, the only points of importance being the shapes of 
the cutting edges and that the body or shank of the tool 
contains metal enough to give the necessary stiffness, to 
avoid springing, while the metal itself should be of uniform 
texture and capable of being properly hardened, without 



154 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

subjecting it to heat enough to burn the thinner portions 
while tempering. 

When one stops to consider the air of mystery which 
many persons endeavor to cast around the operations and 
processes in the various trades, it is not all surprising to note 
that the hardening and tempering of steel has indeed had its 
full share of attention from these wise men, if we may judge 
by the many recipes to be found in almost every book touch- 
ing upon the subject of steel. 

The wide differences in the results obtained from a piece 
of steel which has been properly manipulated, and one from 
the same bar which has been improperly handled in the heat- 
ing and hardening processes, may, perhaps, have had some- 
thing to do with the mystery, for, while there seems scarcely 
any reasonable limit to the capabilities of good steel when 
properly treated, on the other hand, the same steel, if heated 
higher than is absolutely necessary in order to insure a 
proper hardening, will be made so brittle and unfit to serve 
any useful purpose that we might just as well have used 
the poorest quality instead. While we do not wish to be 
classed as pessimistic in our views upon the subject, we 
do feel that it is our duty to cast aside this mystic robe 
and give the reader solid facts, which are in keeping with 
the advancement and enlightenment of the twentieth cen- 
tury. Steel differs principally from, its basis (iron, which 
is an elementary substance) in the amount of carbon it con- 
tains. 

The amount of carbon contained ranges from nothing in 
wrought or malleable iron up to one and one-half to two 
per cent in steel suitable for making cutting tools, and with 
five per cent of carbon we have a cast iron. 

It is somewhat difficult to specify just where malleable 
iron leaves off and steel commences, for the best authorities 
differ on the subject. That variety which contains an in- 
sufficient amount of carbon to cause it to harden thoroughly, 
such as would be required for a drill or turning tool, is 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



*55 



known among the trade as mild steel, and is of no use to 
the watchmaker, but might be used in making the larger 
clocks, especially tower clocks. Steel is produced by three 
separate methods, and is known as natural, shear and cast 
steel. 

Natural steel is made from the iron as it comes from 
the smelter by putting the molten metal into a converter and 
forcing a quantity of air through it, by which means a por- 
tion of the carbon is burned away. In making shear steel, 
bar-iron is first roasted while in contact with carbon, in a 
cementing furnace, when it is known as blister steel. This 
steel is now taken, and after heating, is hammered and 
worked, and several bars are welded together. This bar is 
sometimes cut and again welded and hammered. Single 
shear and double shear show to what extent the process has 
been carried. The name shear steel is derived from its ap- 
plicability to the manufacture of shearing or cutting tools. 
Cast steel is blister steel, which has been broken up, fused 
in a crucible, cast into ingots, and rolled or hammered. Tool 
steel is a special grade of cast steel, and should be well ham- 
mered, which makes it tougher and of finer grain than steel 
which is rolled. The more a bar of steel is hammered 
without crushing it and worked, the better it becomes. On 
a square bar of steel which has been hammered, the corners, 
being not so well supported as the center, will be found to 
be more compact, and, consequently, of better quality. The 
test of steel consists in an actual demonstration of its ability 
to retain the cutting edge in good condition for the greatest 
period of time. 

All the care and skill exercised by the manufacturers of 
steel will be wasted if the workman is careless in the oper- 
ation of heating. The true secret of hardening steel is the 
bringing it to a temperature at which it will harden thor- 
oughly, and no higher, for, if the temperature is carried 
above this point to any great extent, the steel will be burnt. 
On the other hand, if the temperature is not brought suf- 



I56 THE AMERICAN LATHE, 

ficiently high the operation can be repeated without detri- 
ment to the material. When heating a large piece of steel, 
the heat should be applied gradually, until the temperature 
becomes uniform throughout the entire piece. If an intense 
heat is applied suddenly the result will be that the outer sur- 
face will reach the required temperature for hardening 
some time before the inner portion has had time to reach 
that stage, and the result will be similar to case hardening 
a piece of wrought iron, i. e., the outer shell will be hard 
while the inner portion will be soft, for it must be remem- 
bered that a temperature below that which is required to 
harden it, in reality anneals it, or leaves it softer than before 
heating. This fact is frequently taken advantage of by 
skillful tool makers ; for example, in drill making, where the 
drill is large and long, so that the strains due to torsion 
in working would be likely to break the drill in the hole if it 
were not tough and elastic in its center while the edges must 
be hard enough to cut tough steel. 

The ideal method of heating steel is by means of a muffle, 
as in this way the flame does not come into direct contact 
with the work, where gas is used, nor the burning fuel when 
coal or coke is used. In the case of heating directly by gas 
flame and a blow pipe, aside from the danger of overheating 
the steel, there are times when a coating is formed on the 
steel which prevents it from hardening thoroughly, and 
yet this same piece of steel, if heated in a muffle, would be 
found to harden satisfactorily. In using a muffle, the heat 
can be brought to the required temperature, and maintained 
there, and can be judged much better than in an open fire, 
as by means of a peep-hole in the muffle the work can be 
closely watched until the proper degree is reached. 

When heating pivot drills and similar small articles, great 
care should be exercised to prevent overheating. For this 
purpose the melted lead or cyanide baths are sometimes 
used. These consist of either lead or cyanide, brought to 
the required temperature in a wrought iron pot or ladle. 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



'57 



Into this bath the article is plunged and allowed to remain 
until it assumes the same heat as the bath and is then 
quenched. In heating small pieces in this way, there is no 
danger of burning, as the smallest portions will only be 
brought to the temperature of the bath itself. 

The room in which the steel is heated should be dark- 
ened, so that the heat may be judged by the color of the 
article. It is evident that we can more closely judge of a 
cherry red in a dark room than we can in front of a window 
in the sunshine. If the watchmaker is tempering at his 
bench, in a bright light, a sheet of cardboard, blotter or large 
book, placed on edge between the lamp and the light, so as to 
shut off the light, will enable him to see the blue flame of 
his lamp clearly and allow him to judge the color of his drill 
or tool much better than in a strong light. In tempering 
small objects, such as pivot drills, this is important, as the 
heat rises beyond the proper temperature very quickly after 
it starts to redden. 

For the ordinary purpose of hardening, water is capable 
of giving results equal to those of any of the most elaborate 
formulas. . The water should be about 70 . Considerable 
care should be exercised in the plunging, and this depends 
greatly upon the shape of the article. Tools which are com- 
paratively long and narrow, such as slide rest tools, drills, 
etc., should be plunged vertically in order to prevent distor- 
tion. In heating an article which is to be subsequently 
brightened, it should be covered with soap or powdered 
borax, which prevents oxidization. When an article, such 
as a drill, is required to be extremely hard, it may be 
quenched in mercury, being very careful not to inhale the 
fumes arising from it, as they are very poisonous. A sat- 
urated solution of caustic potash or concentrated lye will 
make a still harder and tougher drill, and pivot drills have 
been made in this way, by skillful men, that would drill a 
piece of steel hardened in mercury. The main point in 
using hardening solutions is to get one which will conduct 



15$ THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

the heat quickly away from the piece to be hardened. Any- 
thing that will do this will serve the purpose. Pivot drills 
have been tempered by heating and thrusting into a raw po- 
tato. 

Tempering is the act of withdrawing a portion of the ex- 
treme hardness from steel, in order to increase its elasticity, 
thus making it stronger and tougher. Steel is tempered ac- 
cording to the purposes for which it is intended, and this is 
determined largely by color. Color, however, is not an in- 
fallible guide to the hardness of steel, as much depends on 
the quality of the metal and its polish. When a piece of 
metal is whitened, after being hardened and then heated, 
the surface will gradually pass from a white to a light blue- 
green. This can best be exemplified by taking a piece of 
hard steel and heating it and observing the changes of color. 
It first assumes a very pale straw yellow, almost instantly 
followed by a darker yellow, these colors giving a temper 
desirable for metal cutting tools, as slide rest cutters, drills, 
etc. Then fellows a dark straw yellow, tinged slightly with 
purple, suitable for punches, chisels and percussion tools. 
Then comes a purple and dark blue, suitable for springs, bal- 
ance staffs and pinions, and finally, a pale blue, and blue 
tinted with green, which are too soft for any of the above 
purposes. These colors are not perceived by the workman 
unless he has had considerable practice in watching them, 
as they merge into each other in such a way that unless the 
man doing the work has a good eye for color and can rec- 
ognize instantly the shade he wants it is likely to pass into 
the next shade before he recognizes it and withdraws the 
heat. If the hardened piece has been polished the colors 
will be much brighter and more distinct than if it is covered 
with scale from the hardening and a rough piece has vary- 
ing shades owing to the light being reflected from the metal 
at various angles so that it seems to have an uneven color, 
and hence it takes practice to judge what the color really is. 
Now each kind of steel has a shade that will give better re- 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



*59 



suits than a degree of heat slightly above or below will im- 
part. 

Annealing, or the softening of steel, is accomplished in 
two ways, i. e., by heating and allowing it to cool slowly, 
and by heating to a less degree than that used for hardening, 
and then suddenly quenching in water. Some mechanics 
in annealing in the first mentioned manner, cover the heated 
article with hot ashes or some other non-conducting ma- 
terial; others put the article between two pine boards and 
allow it to burn its way in, thus encasing it in a charcoal 
bed, but for ordinary purposes it will be sufficient to heat 
the article and allow it to cool slowly in the open air. In 
the water annealing process, the article is first heated to a 
cherry red, and when the red color is just disappearing 
(when in a darkened room), the article is plunged in water. 

If the watchmaker starts to make his tools of a known 
grade of steel it will undoubtedly be better for him to stick 
to that steel as long as he can obtain it, as he will then learn 
from experience just what shade of color to use in temper- 
ing after hardening, just how hot to make it before plunging 
in the hardening solution and numerous other little points 
concerning its use. Do not change your steel because some- 
one had better results with another. Learn your steel; if 
you change you will only have to learn the new one. Leave 
the wonderful improvements to be studied by those who are 
using steel enough to make it a point of economy. You 
will use less than a pound of steel a year in your cutting 
tools so that economy in its purchase is not an object. 

Economy of time in doing your work is the only economy 
you can practice, and this is best assured by having a full 
knowledge, gained from experience, as to the qualities a 
tool should have. Thirty or forty slide rest cutters, of vary- 
ing sizes, rake and clearance, will last the average watch 
maker fifteen years ; he loses, breaks and gives away more 
than he uses up by sharpening. 



l6o THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

In the machine shop the cutting end of the tool is always 
hardened and compacted by heating to a low red and ham- 
mering after forging to shape. It is possible to overdo this 
hammering with a small tool by hammering hard enough to 
separate and crush the fibers of the metal instead of bringing 
them more closely together. When this is the case the 
tool will have brittle or soft, crumbling spots in it. When 
well hammered it will exhibit a close, even, dense structure, 
which will take a good edge and hold it if properly hardened. 
The machinist is also careful to leave the scale on the clear- 
ance angles of his tools, so that the side A C, fig. 120, is 
available for a large part of its depth, the tool being sharp- 
ened on top because it sharpens the end and sides with the 
removal of the smallest amount of metal and leaves the 
case hardened clearance sides with all their hard surfaces 
ready to be used as the cutting edge. In many shops a 
lathe hand is never allowed to remove this scale by grinding. 
All that is permissible is to smooth its edge on the oil stone 
after grinding on top, as the hardest part of a hardened 
piece of steel is always outside and hence the care that is 
taken to preserve this hard part for use in cutting. 

The watch maker uses such small tools that he can buy 
the very best steels, which have been worked sufficiently 
before coming to him, and he may therefore merely cut a 
piece off the bar, file the end to shape, heat to a cherry red 
and plunge endwise in the hardening solution, taking care to 
keep the piece moving until the heat is gone, so that the 
heated portion, coming constantly in contact with cold 
water, has no opportunity of forming an envelope of steam 
and warm water about itself and thus cooling more slowly 
than if it were kept moving. The simplest way in which to 
accomplish this is to drop the piece, hot end downwards, 
into a bucketful of water, so that it will have time to cool 
by the time it reaches the bottom, or hold it under the cold 
water faucet, if supplied with water from city mains. Much 
poor hardening is done because the amount of water used is 



THE AMERICAN L.ATHE, l6l 

too small and too warm to be serviceable in cooling quickly. 
The blacksmith uses a half barrel and changes his water 
when it gets warm ; or if he tempers in oil, he uses several 
gallons to temper a lathe tool or other object of similar size, 
and he keeps it moving until the redness is all gone, when it 
is dropped to the bottom of the trough and allowed to cool 
thoroughly. Of course, such small tools as the watch maker 
uses do not require anywhere near such quantities of liquid ; 
the point we are making is that there must be enough liquid 
to cool the tool quickly and that the liquid should not be so 
warm as to defeat the object sought. Tempering a pivot 
drill in a pint cup is furnishing more liquid in proportion than 
the blacksmith uses in his half barrel with the larger tool. 

The next point is the temperature. The hardening is 
accomplished by the difference in temperature possessed by 
the metal and that of the liquid when they are brought 
together. The different steels vary considerably in the amount 
of difference of temperature required to secure the best re- 
sults, and this difference should never be exceeded. The ob- 
jects sought are hardness, so that the steel will penetrate the 
metal to be worked, and toughness, so that the tool will 
stand the strains put upon it. These qualities are contra- 
dictory; the harder you make your steel the more brittle it 
becomes, so that a medium or compromise must be sought. 
The hardening liquids vary from about 40 to 80 degrees, 
being used at the temperature of the room. The steel varies 
from a dull red to a bright red. It should never be allowed 
to go beyond this into the whiter shades which accompany 
the higher degrees of heat, as it will be spoiled for use, 
v ecause the expansion caused by the heat will spread the 
fibers of the metal, thus undoing all your work in compact- 
ing them with the hammer, and when plunged in the liquid 
the excessive contraction will destroy the fibers of the metal, 
making them crystalline and without strength. When this 
happens the steel is said to be "'burned," and the best thing 
to do is to break off the burned portion and start over again. 



\6l THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

Another point is that the workman seldom learns to watch 
the proper parts of his tool while heating, until a long series 
of more or less continuous failures enforces its importance 
upon his attention. You are trying to harden the cutting 
edges of your tool, not the whole tool ; therefore, pay atten- 
tion to these cutting edges and let the rest of the tool take 
care of itself. Plunge into the cooling liquid as soon as the 
cutting edges take the proper color and get the tool out of 
the flame into the liquid in something less than a second, if 
possible, as it is the difference in temperature when they 
meet that counts, not how hot the tool has been at some pre- 
vious time. This is especially important with drills. Watch 
makers' drills are so 1 small and weak that the heat is lost 
unless great speed is used in hardening and more drills are 
tempered in air than in the hardening liquid by the ordinary 
workman. Indeed, many use no liquid in tempering pivot 
drills, simply swinging them rapidly in the air until cold. 
We can not indorse this practice, as it is next to impossible 
to learn to heat the tool just right, for the ordinary man 
needs a long apprenticeship of the eye when it comes to dis- 
tinguishing heat by varying shades of red which merge into 
each other rapidly, as is the case in heating such small tools. 

The student may make most rapid progress by going into 
a machine shop and watching the blacksmith when he is 
making lathe tools, paying particular attention to the color 
of the tool just as it is being plunged into the oil or water. 
Then go home and try to get the same color on your tools. 
A few lessons will teach you not to burn your drills and 
other smaller tools, and that is the main point to be guarded 
against in your case. 

That is the best tool which contains its hardest metal at 
the cutting edge and softer metal inside. This makes a 
tough tool. It is quite difficult to do this with tools so small 
as those we are considering, as they are apt to be hardened 
clear through and become weak in consequence. With 
larger tools it is accomplished habitually by many workmen. 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 1 63 

If using anything besides water to harden with, such as 
cyanide, caustic potash, oil or other solutions, a wide 
mouthed bottle, known as a "salt mouth, " with ground glass 
stopper makes perhaps the best vessel to keep your solution 
in. It should be kept full, so that small tools may be 
thrust in it readily with the tweezers. After hardening, 
stone off the working surface with oil on a rather coarse 
stone, so as to remove the scale formed during hardening, 
but not enough to remove the hardened surface of the tool. 
Having thus smoothed it up, polish the cutting edges with a 
fine oilstone, or if the tool be a drill or very small cutter, use 
a lap on the pivot polisher to produce the polished cutting 
edge, and then draw the temper with the alcohol lamp until 
the polished cutting edges are of the particular shade you 
want as given at the beginning of this chapter. Do not put 
your edges in the flame ; put the shank in the flame and keep 
the edges out where you can watch them change color. Use 
a strong glass to watch the polished edges, if you are a 
novice or do not see well, as the desired color comes and 
goes again very quickly on such small tools as you will have 
occasion to use most frequently. The instant the proper 
shade — generally one of the shades of yellow- — has been 
obtained, drop the tool in water — and be quick about it. 
This means that when making pivot drills, for instance, you 
must get your hardening liquid very close to your lamp flame. 
If you use a tilting lamp such as is very commonly used 
for cementing, you can bring your flame within an inch and 
directly over your water, so that the cooling is almost 
instantaneous after arriving at the proper color of heat. 
Older watch makers will remember the use of a raw potato 
for hardening pivot drills; the sole advantage was that the 
potato could be held close to the flame, so that less than one 
inch of movement would jab the drill into it when the proper 
heat was obtained. The blacksmith in the machine shop, 
making tools for engine lathes, will take his tool out of the 
fire, study its color for several seconds and drop it at just 



1 64 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



the right shade of red. With a pivot drill you must work 
just as fast as possible, as it is so small it cools almost 
instantly and there is no time to be leisurely; study your 
color in the flame. 



Fig. 124. 

Drills, as used to-day for general work, are of two princi- 
pal kinds — namely : the twist drill and the diamond shaped, 
the latter so called because of the shape of the cutting edges. 
These two forms are shown in Figs. 124 and 125. The 
former is the twist, while the latter is the diamond point. 
Those drills which are used for other purposes than the 
drilling of holes, and which we might term special drills, 
are shown in Figs. 126 and 127. That shown at Fig. 126 is 
called a nib drill, and is used to flatten the bottom of holes, 
while that shown at Fig. 127 is a pin drill, so called from the 
pin or guide, and is used in recessing or counterboring for 
flat screw heads and such work, where it is necessary that 
the bottom be flat, or if formed as at A, it is used for count- 
ersinking. The cutting edges, of course, being ground to 
the desired angle the countersink is to be. 





Fig. 125. 



Fig. 126. 



Twist drills are now made in sizes small enough to be 
used in a great many of the operations connected with 
watches and clocks, and when it is possible to use them they 
are found to cut very fast ; and on account of their form 
it will not be necessary to withdraw them to remove the 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



165 



cuttings, as is the case with flat drills when a hole of some 
depth is made. This is of considerable importance, especial- 
ly in clock work, or when using larger sizes. The drill is 
not the same diameter, from end to end, but it slightly 
tapers towards the back, but this taper is so small as to be 
of no consequence in actual practice. It is quite sufficient, 
however, to prevent binding in the work. Neither are twist 
drills round, as is generally supposed, the diameter being 
eased away from a short distance beyond the advance edge 
of the flute. This is done to reduce the friction of the sides 
and also for clearance for the cutting edges. 





Fig. 127. 



Fig. 128. 



The grinding of the cutting edges must be done with 
great accuracy, and to do it properly by hand requires con- 
siderable experience, so that drill grinding machines are 
now generally found in all modern machine shops. The 
cutting edges are usually ground to an angle of 60 degrees 
to the center line of the drill, as shown at Fig. 128, and when 
it is to be used on brass this angle may be decreased slightly, 
and the cutting edge should be so ground as to give less 
rake and keenness. The result, if both cutting edges are not 
ground to the same angle, is that one edge is compelled to 



i66 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



do all the work, consequently it will require twice as much 
time to do a given amount of cutting and will become dull 
much sooner. This is illustrated by Fig. 129. When the 
angles are unequal, the point of the drill may or may not 
coincide with the center of the drill. With the point central, 
the hole would be the same diameter as the drill, while if it 
is not central it will drill a hole larger than the drill by 
twice as much as the amount the point is out of center, as 
shown at Fig. 130. A very good guide to tell if each edge is 
doing its proper share of the work is to observe if the cut- 
tings come from each flute equally, and if they do not, they 
will show which edge is faulty. The difficulty in grinding 
the twist drill, especially in the smaller sizes, or such as can 




1 — - 

Fig. 129. 




Fig. 13C. 



be used in watch work or small clock work, without the 
aid of some technical arrangement, is a serious drawback to 
their use, but if the workman has a pivot polisher they may 
be ground by setting it at the proper angle and using a lap 
on it, so that the two edges have the same angles exactly 
and the point will then be exactly in the center. 

Place the drill in a chuck in the lathe-head in such a posi- 
tion that the proper amount of clearance will be given to the 
cutting edge; this amount must be determined by a trial, 
but, as it can be set at first with tolerable certainty, one trial 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



167 



should be sufficient. Now set the grinder so as to grind the 
desired angle on the cutting edge relative to the center of 
the drill, and grind the first edge. Then note the position 
of the pin in the index of the lathe-head, which should have 
been previously inserted, so as to hold the spindle from 
rotating and revolve the drill half way round by turning the 
lathe spindle. After fastening it with the index pin, proceed 
to grind the opposite edge, and if the drill has been properly 
set in the chuck it will cut correctly. 

When using the twist drill, care should be exercised in 
the feed when the point is about to emerge from the opposite 
side, as there is a tendency to run through on account of the 




—A 




Fig. 131. 



Fig. 132. 



spiral or twist form of the drill. The best way to avoid any 
trouble is to put a piece of metal at the back into which the 
drill can run until the cutting edges are entirely through the 
work, which will finish the hole up true and smooth. 

The flat, or diamond point, drill, as usually made in the 
smaller sizes, as shown in Fig. 131, in which the sides are 
relieved to such an extent that it is greatly weakened, and 
there is nothing but the points AA 1 left to support the sides, 
and every time such a drill is sharpened the size is reduced 
a considerable amount, so that after being sharpened a few 
times such a drill is unfit for the job intended, and a new 



l6S THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

one must be made. To obviate these faults, the drill should 
be made with an almost imperceptible taper towards the 
shank, as shown in Fig. 125. If, when drilling, the point of 
the drill, at Fig. 131 should strike a hard spot in the metal, 
or from any other cause which would tend to make it run 
to one side, it would be more affected than such a one as 
shown at Fig. 125, the sides of which would offer sufficient 
support, so that the hole would be very near straight at the 
worst. Drills, with the cutting edges, as shown in Fig. 132, 
are put upon the market by foreign concerns, and are in- 
tended to be used in the bow drill, but are unfit to be used 
in lathe work, where they revolve continually in one direc- 
tion, as the angles of the cutting edges are so formed as to 
prevent the greatest efficiency of the cutting edges when it is 
in use, forming a V edge, which can only scrape the metal 
off. 




Fig. 133. Fig. 134. Fig. 135. 

When using a flat drill it should be withdrawn every few 
revolutions, so as to prevent clogging, which would cause it 
to stick and bind, and break the drill, especially in the 
smaller sizes, such as the pivot drills, where great care and 
delicacy of touch are necessary to prevent breaking. When 
drilling steel or wrought iron, the drill should be supplied 
with oil, but in cast iron or brass this will not be necessary if 
the drill is properly made and in good condition; however, 
there is occasionally a case where oil might be used to 
advantage, as where the drill has a tendency to stick. It is 
just as important in the flat as in the twist drill, that each 
cutting edge be equal, and it might be added that it is the 
case in all drills of whatever kind or nature. To obtain this 
equality of the edges, it is necessary to use the lathe when 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 169 

making a drill. Turn a cone on the end of the rod or wire, 
as shown in Fig. 133, of the angle to the line of centers, that 
the cutting edges are to be. 

The turning of the cone above mentioned, on the end of 
the rod or wire, is only necessary when the sides and cutting 
edges are formed by hand. When the sides and cutting 
edges are formed by means of a rotary grinder on the slide 
rest or a lap on the pivot polisher, it is not necessary, as the 
grinding will true them up if they are unequally roughed 
out by hand. 

Then flatten the sides by filing or grinding, and lastly, 
giving the requisite amount of clearance to the cutting 
edges and then hardening; this method is easy enough in 
the larger sizes of drills, but is almost impossible when we 
get down to the small pivoting sizes. The following 
method will be found very accurate for these smaller drills : 
Having a piece of steel slightly larger than the finished 
drill is to be, harden it thoroughly, and draw the temper to a 
light straw color. To harden such a piece, after heating to a 
red heat, it should be dipped endwise so as to prevent its 
springing out of true. After the piece is tempered, put it in 
the lathe and grind it until true, with the parallel grinder or 
pivot polisher set so as to grind slightly tapering towards 
the back end of the drill, just sufficient so that the part back 
of the cutting edge will not bind in the hole. Usually one 
or two degrees will give clearance enough, as this clearance 
is on each side of the drill and the total taper towards the 
shank is therefore double the amount for which the pivot 
polisher is set. 

When the blank is ground down to size, throw the lathe 
belt off and place the index stop at sixty, and in such a 
position that the lathe spindle may be revolved exactly half a 
revolution, and fix the lathe spindle so it can not move; 
then, with the grinding spindle of the pivot polisher set to 
the requisite angle and in the proper direction, proceed to 
grind the two side faces of the drill, leaving sufficient metal 



I70 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

at the end so that the point of the drill is not too frail ; now 
set the grinding spindle again to such a taper as will grind 
the cutting edges ; then revolve the lath spindle so that the 
top will turn towards you ; fix the index pin in the eighteenth 
hole from that in which it was when the sides of the drill 
were ground and flattened. When one side is done, turn 
the lathe spindle half a revolution and grind the other one, 
and you have as true a drill as can be made. 

When we say the eighteenth hole, we refer to the modern 
American lathes, which have a head stock index of sixty 
holes. The idea is to revolve the spindle one-quarter way 
round and then add the three extra holes for clearance for 
the cutting edge. 

By grinding the sides of the drill, as above, it leaves them 
concave, as shown in Fig. 134, which enables us to make the 
drill point thinner, while the drill as a whole is as strong as 
if the sides were perfectly flat. In this way a drill of five 
one-thousandths of an inch or smaller may be made with 
the same accuracy as any of the larger ones, and in no 
instance could one so small be made by hand accurately. 

Drills may also be sharpened by the same method. For 
holding the drill in the lathe head when drilling, a special 
drill chuck should be purchased, so that the wire chucks 
may be preserved and shielded from the heavier and 
coarser work as much as possible. Fig. 135 shows a drill 
chuck which is small and accurate enough for jewelers' use 
when mounted on a shank which will fit the throat and the 
draw-in spindle. The advantage of such a chuck is two 
fold, for while it protects the wire chucks it at the same time 
permits the holding of drills of various sizes where such 
would necessitate the changing of a wire chuck every time a 
drill with a different sized shank was used. When the work 
is held in the lathe head and revolved, the drill, if very 
small, should be held in a drill chuck made for the purpose, 
and which fits in the tailstock spindle, but if no such chuck 
is at hand the drill may be clamped by any suitable device 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 1^1 

to prevent it from turning with the work while the shank 
end rests in a female center in the tailstock spindle. 

A pivot drill if put in a pin vise and held in the hand is 
liable to be broken, as there will be more or less side pres- 
sure upon the drill, and for this reason the tailstock should 
always be used when drilling, that the pressure will only be 
in the direction necessary to perform the work. When 
making a pivot drill it should be as short as possible, which 
will reduce the spring and consequent breaking. 






Pig. 136. 

When it becomes necessary to drill tempered steel, the 
drill must be carefully sharpened and not allowed to become 
dull, for if it should it will act as a burnisher, and so form a 
surface so hard that it will be difficult to remove it. 

The tit drill is seldom employed, and when such a one is 
needed it can be made in the same way as the pin drill, 
which is shown in Fig. 127, and is very useful in counter- 
sinking a hole which has already been drilled. The pin B 
fits the hole to be countersunk, so it is a good working fit, 
while the body is of such a size that it will cut the counter- 
sink of the required size. To make such a drill, the pin is 
first turned down to the required size ; then flatten the sides 
and form the cutting edge. A combined countersink and 
mill may be made, as shown in Fig. 136, which has four cut- 
ting edges. A central hole is drilled in a rod of steel of, say 
the total diameter of the threaded portion of any screw it is 
desired to make, while the body is left as large as the head 
of a screw which is to be countersunk. Now, with a circu- 
lar mill, cut away the metal so as to form the cutting edges, 
to which, of course, it will be necessary to give an angle 
sufficient for clearance. Cut off the rod and drill and tap the 
hole in the side for the set screw. Harden and temper to a 



172 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



straw. As described we have a mill that may be used for 
making screw blanks by fastening it so as to be held in the 
tailstock and advancing it endwise to the material for mak- 
ing screws. 

To make all the screws of the same length, a stop may 
be put in the hole which will limit the length of the thread- 
ed portion, being held by a screw tapped through from the 
outside. When it is to be used as a countersink, all that is 
necessary is to make a pin which will fit the hole in the 
mill with some friction, while the portion of the pin extend- 
ing beyond the cutting faces is made a working fit in the 






B 



Fig. 137. Fig. 138. 

hole that is to be countersunk. For holding such a mill, 
a holder, as shown in Fig. 137, can be made, which may be 
used in the tailstock while the rod is held by the chuck in 
the lathe head. By using such a mill, a screw can be made 
in much less time than if turned out by hand, or even with 
the slide rest. Drills for centering and countersinking 
work, which is to be turned between centers, may be made 
by grinding a cone to the same angle as the lathe center, 
then flatten one side until a full half of its diameter is 
ground away. Before using the center drill, a small hole 
must be drilled somewhat deeper than the countersink is 
to be made, so that the point of the lathe center will not 
touch the bottom of the hole. This is made plain by Fig. 




Fig. 139. 

138, where A is the work and B is the drill. Sometimes 
the drill and countersink are made in one piece, as in Fig. 

139, or a hole may be drilled, into which the drill is inserted 
and held by a screw. 



THE AMERICAN LATHE, 



x 73 



It is important to have these cutters for tail stock center- 
ing perfectly true, so that the lathe centers may fit exactly 
in the holes which will be made by them, as the centers w T ill 
then resist the wear better and so remain true longer. Be- 
fore drilling the centers in the work, the ends of the work 
must be made tolerably flat and true with a graver, then, 
after the centering with this tool is done the work is swung 
on the lathe centers, and before starting to turn the work 
these ends which have just been centered are to be turned 
off true, so that the wear may be the same all the way 
around, which it would not be if the end was uneven. This 
has already been referred to on pages 82 and 83. After 
the center hole is drilled, the countersink is put in the tail- 




Fig. 141. 

stock, while the dog is put on one end of the work and re- 
volved on the center, bringing the tailstock spindle up until 
the center is sufficiently deep, then turn the work end for 
end and finish the other center. By centering the work, as 
above, we get the countersinks directly in line with the cen- 
ters of the lathe, which gives a true bearing all around, 
which is necessary for accurate results. 

When an accurate hole is required, the drill will be found 
unsatisfactory on account of its roughness and the fact that 
it may not be round and of the same size all the way through, 
or it may not be straight, if a long, deep hole, and after 
drilling the hole somewhat less than the size is to be when 
finished, the reamer is to be passed through, which will leave 



174 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

it very true and smooth. Fig. 140 and Fig. 141 show two 
styles of reamers, but for the greatest accuracy the one at 
140, owing to its form, is the best, as the sides form a guide 
for the cutting edges which compels the tool to maintain a 
true hole. In making a reamer, great care is necessary that 
it be accurately formed, as the work will not be more ac- 
curate than this tool. The body of the tool, back of the 
cutting edges, should be just enough smaller that it will 
follow in the hole without undue friction when supplied with 
oil. The greatest accuracy is obtained by leaving the quan- 
tity of metal to be removed by the reamer the smallest 
amount that will true up to size properly, and the reamer 




Fig. 142. 

should be fed into the hole slowly so as to give the cutting 
edges ample time to cut away all of the metal and clear 
themselves. 

Reamers are sometimes used for making taper holes; a 
fluted reamer is shown in Fig. 142, or another style may be 
made by grinding a piece of hardened steel to the required 
taper, then grinding away two sides until the cutting edge 
is formed. The fluted reamer is very well adapted for ac- 
curate tapers, but as each portion of the cutting edge forms 
a separate cutter, owing to the taper, it will be necessary 
to finish the cutting edges more carefully than in the cylin- 
drical forms if we expect the surface to be left as smooth 
and perfect. When grinding or finishing the cutting edges 
of reamers, it should be done as explained for tool grinding. 

When a disc or hole larger than can conveniently be 
drilled is to be made, it should be bored with a boring tool 
in the slide rest. The sizes and shapes of these tools are il- 
lustrated and described as slide rest cutters, Fig. 123. 



CHAPTER X. 

TURNING WITH THE GRAVER AND SLIDE REST. 

In using the graver , it is probably more difficult to explain 
just how it is done, than in many other operations performed 
upon the lathe ; but since the workman is known by his chips, 
this will perhaps form the best guide by which he can tell 
if the severing of the metal is accomplished under normal 
conditions. The graver must be well sharpened, so as to 
cut freely, and to test it for keenness, try the point on the 
thumb-nail ; if sharp it should stick or cut into the nail, but 
if it is not sharp it will slide over the nail easily. 

The T rest should have the top edge slightly below the line 
of the centers of the lathe, so that the cutting edge of the 
graver may be held on this line. The T rest should be 
smooth, having no notches or rough places in it, the temper 
being such that the graver will have a tendency to stay at 
the spot where it is placed and not slide away, yet not so 
soft that the graver will cut down into the metal. In setting 
the T rest, set it as close to the work as possible, yet at the 
same time so it will clear it nicely, wMi the height so that 
the cutting edge of the tool will strike the work near the 
center. By setting the rest close to the work, it gives the 
hand more leverage and at the same time a more delicate 
feed. When turning at night, or where the light is not suf- 
ficient to enable the work to be distinctly seen, it will be 
found a great aid if a piece of white paper be laid on the top 
of the T rest shoe, which will form a background against 
which the work will be plainly seen. When the graver is 
properly sharpened and presented to the work, the pressure 

*75 



1 76 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

necessary to make it cut will be very slight and the cutting 
will come off with a clean, lively appearance in the form 
of a spiral, leaving a smooth cut, more or less polished, ac- 
cording to the metal operated upon and the finish of the 
graver. Some workmen aver that it is necessary to learn 
to cut with the point of the graver, as it is the only possible 
way to learn to cut true, which may be so, but it is certainly 
not the way to turn smoothly, which is of quite as much im- 
portance and a necessary complement to truth. It is not 
to be understood that the point of the graver is never to 
be used to turn with, for there are places where the use 
of it is indispensable, such as turning out sharp corners, 
undercutting, etc., where a clean, sharp angle is to be left ; 
but for accuracy and smoothness it certainly cannot be rec- 
ommended. 




Fig. 143. Fig. 144. Fig. 145. 



The length of time a point will remain in good cutting 
condition, even when used by an experienced hand, is so 
short that this alone is sufficient cause to limit its use to 
such occasions as are indispensably necessary. 

The angle of the cutting edge of slide rest tools for gen- 
eral use is forty-five degrees, but in hand-tools the angle is 
not so imperative as in those which are rigidly held in posi- 
tion in the slide rest, since the hand may readily change the 
angle of presentation of the cutting edge to the work, so 
that all the conditions will be satisfied. The side of the graver 
is to be used and, presented to the work as indicated at 
Fig. 143, will give a spiral cut which will be a smooth and 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 1 77 

clean one. For turning brass, the graver is sometimes held 
as shown in Fig. 144. You can judge if the tool is cutting 
properly by the appearance of the cutting, which should 
be in the form of a spiral. By thus holding the graver, the 
necessary angle of negative rake to make a smooth cut on 
brass, may be readily had. The handle of the graver should 
be grasped with the right hand, while the left supports the 
tool on the T rest and holds it to the cut. The feed is ac- 
complished by raising the handle of the graver at the begin- 
ning of the cut and gradually depressing it so as to change 
the point of contact of the tool with the work more towards 
the point of the graver, which will cause it to traverse the 
cut lengthwise of the work and towards the graver point, 
but the extent of this motion is small, so that if the portion 
to be turned is of considerable length, it will be necessary 
to advance the graver farther along the T rest; but when 
this is necessary, the graver may be grasped somewhat more 
firmly and moved along the top of the T rest, similar to 
a slide rest, which will expedite the work. When a quantity 
of metal is to be removed, without regard to accuracy or 
finish, the point of the graver is slightly rounded, just 
enough so that the delicate point is removed, by rounding 
the back angle of the graver and presenting it at a right 
angle to the work and feeding it by swinging the handle 
back and forth. In this way a heavy cut may be taken, until 
the work is approximately to size, then finish by holding 
the graver as before explained. In turning shoulders, the 
graver point may be formed as shown in Fig. 145 ; however, 
the width of the portion removed should be slight and the 
angle should be less than ninety degrees. 

When beginning to learn to turn on the lathe, brass 
should be taken first, as it is easier to cut than steel. The 
beginner should not attempt any difficult or fancy turning 
at the outset, but should confine himself to turning a true 
cylinder, leaving the final cut so smooth as to appear as if 
it had been polished. At the same time the hand is being 



178 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

trained, the eye must not be neglected, as it should be able 
to detect any slight defect either in form or finish, and it 
is at this juncture that an accurate gauge is an absolute 
necessity to aid the eye and show where the inaccuracies 
are, but the gauge should only be used after the piece is 
turned and to the eye appears correct. A micrometer gauge 
should be used for measuring diameters, and a small straight 
edge for the straight portions, and for testing the shoulders, 
which may be attempted as soon as a smooth straight cylin- 
der an inch in length can be made that w T ill show no error 
greater than one or two thousandths of an inch. See that 
all portions, the sides of which are to be straight, are so, 
while all parts that are to be curved are uniformly so, this 
being the whole secret of turning out beautiful work. To 
be able to turn a nice true shoulder, is something but a few 
workmen can justly boast of, and it requires a great deal 
of patience and practice to be able to do it well, the greatest 
difficulty being to join the two planes, at the same time leav- 
ing the angle clear and sharp. The accuracy of the shoulder 
may be tested by placing the straight edge across it, when 
it will show if too much or not enough metal has been re- 
moved. In turning up to a shoulder, such for instance as in 
a straight pivot, it will be found that it is necessary to turn 
down the pivot next to the shoulder, until it really appears 
to be smaller than the outer end, in order to be of the same 
diameter from end to end. Various fancy forms may next 
be attempted, nor so much from their utility in actual prac- 
tice, as to train the hand and eye. After brass can be worked 
satisfactorily, annealed steel may be taken, following this 
with steel tempered to a blue. In cutting tempered steel, 
it is necessary to have the graver very sharp, so that it will 
cut as soon as it is applied to the work. Should the graver 
fail to cut cleanly, it must be examined and re-sharpened 
if necessary, but if it still refuses to cut, another graver 
should be tried, as the first one may have had the temper 
lowered too much; however, there should be no difficulty 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. I 79 

in turning steel tempered to a blue, or even a purplish blue. 
When turning tempered steel, the graver must be re-sharp- 
ened as soon as it is necessary to exert any extra pressure, 
in order to make it cut, as the extra pressure would cause 
the steel to burnish and become hard on the surface, so as 
to sometimes effectually resist all attempts to remove it, 
even with the best of gravers. The only way of removing 
such places, is to start at one side with the point of the 
grader, which must be kept sharp, and usually it will be 
sufficient to get the cut started beneath the hard skin, when 
the turning may be proceeded with in the ordinary method ; 
but at times it will be necessary to continue using the point 
of the graver, and it may sometimes even be necessary to 
re-temper the piece before it will yield. 

It is probably of as much, if not more importance, to be 
able to distinguish between work that is correct and that 
which is incorrect, as to know the methods by which it is 
accomplished, since the former is a matter of education, 
while in the latter case the natural talent will often come 
to the rescue, when the conditions to be satisfied are known. 
As previously pointed out, the work should be turned first 
as nearly as possible with the eye alone, then proven by 
using a gauge. Of course it is not possible to train the 
eye so as to turn out the work of the desired accuracy by its 
aid alone, but we should be able to judge very closely, leav- 
ing the final correction only to be done by the gauge, which 
will expedite the work. That the judgment may be matured, 
the quantity of metal removed from one measurement to 
another should be noted. When examining the work, it 
will be easier to detect any fault, if it is held so as to re- 
flect the light to the eye, which is the most delicate test for 
accuracy and smoothness of finish. If the light is reflected 
uniformly, it shows an accurate surface. 

When doing fine and delicate turning, such as pivots, it 
is best not to use any liquid to moisten the graver, as it 
would cause the chips to adhere to the work, and so inter- 



iSo THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

fere with the view of the cutting point, which it is at all 
times necessary to have in order to tell what is being ac- 
complished, and besides, it is of questionable advantage to 
use anything in the lighter work. 

The use of the graver can best be exemplified by following 
the various steps in the making of a balance staff, as in this 
operation the graver is used more than in any other and 
thoroughly covers the various forms of hand turning. 

When making a balance staff, the method which follows 
is beyond reproach from the standpoint of accuracy, this, of 
course, being the main point, all others being secondary 
considerations. Take a piece of steel wire somewhat larger 
than the hub of the finished staff is to be. If the wire is not 
true turn it down for about an inch of its length, still leav- 
ing it a trifle longer than the finished staff is to be. After 
hardening the turned portion, draw the temper to between 
a purple and a blue. The color will be found to vary under 
different circumstances, but the steel should be left as hard 
as can be readily turned with a well-sharpened graver. The 
reason for this is, that the harder the steel is left the better 
the finish that can be put upon it, and it also resists wear 
much better, while a blow that would break it would be very 
apt to ruin a softer one. 

Never use a piece of wire sticking out in front of the 
chuck further than is necessary to make the piece of work, 
as the centrifugal force will cause it to spring and run 
untrue, particularly when you start to turn down prepara- 
tory to cutting it off. Having the piece of wire tempered, 
select a properly fitted chuck and put it in the lathe, let- 
ting the wire extend out from the face of the chuck about 
one and a half times the length of the finished staff, and pro- 
ceed to turn out the top end of the staff as follows : 

When making a new staff the dimensions should be put 
down on a piece of paper, and, to get these accurately, only 
good measuring instruments should be used. If the old 
staff is at hand it may be utilized for getting the measure- 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



181 



ments for length if it is not too badly broken, for instance, 
one pivot broken off or bent. To get the length of the staff 
remove the end stones and place the parts in the position in 
which they belong, then with the douzieme gauge place on 
jaw on the outside of each hole jewel which should be left 
in its place, and we get the length of staff approximately. 
The reason why we cannot get the exact length of staff is 
that the setting of the jewel hole is sometimes left 
higher than the jewel, or that of the end stone may have 
been left the same w T ay instead of being just flush, but if 
we notice how the jewels are set an allowance can be made 
which will need but very little correction. 

For measuring diameters, a micrometer or a Grossmann 
gauge can be used, but if the former, it must be handled 
very carefully, as owing to its weight and the force of the 




Fig. 146. 



screw it would be very easy to bend a pivot with it, and of 
the two forms it is perhaps more accurate and besides costs 
much less. The advantage of the Grossman gauge is that 
the jaws are actuated by a spring which always gives a 
uniform tension on the work and can be handled quicker. 
Could we but have an accurate measuring tool with which 
we could measure the distance from the end of the staff to a 
shoulder, or the distance from one shoulder to the next, it 
would greatly facilitate the accuracy of the work, but as it 
is seldom that these measurements must as close as those 
of the diameter, it is not so imperative, however, such an 
instrument would be very advantageous. 



l82 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

A staff, in outline, is shown at Fig. 146, which we shall 
use as a pattern to work from. Bear in mind that the closer 
you can get the work to the chuck the better, as there will 
be less liability to error. 

Stone off the end of your wire to a flat. We have now 
arrived at the point where it is necessary to know the lengths 
and measurements of the various parts ; the length of the 
staff from end to end of the pivot ; from end of lower pivot 
to roller shoulder; the location of the balance shoulder and 
collet, with their diameters, etc. In most instances these 
maty be secured from the old staff, which is to be removed 
from the balance by cutting away the riveting, so that the 
balance may be driven off without in any way distorting or 
injuring it. Always examine the old staff by trying it in 
its place in the watch to see if the shoulders were properly 
located, and if not, they may then be corrected in the new 
one, whereas if this is not done at first we may copy mis- 
takes in the old staff and have to make a second one after 
we have found out our mistake. 

To facilitate the handling for measurement, insert the old 
staff in a pin vise. Put the T rest in position ready for 
turning and with your graver make a mark on the new 
wire about where you judge the upper end of the collet 
shoulder will come. Now compare this with the old staff 
and see if the distance is the same, and if not, correct it by 
holding the old staff up to the one in the lathe. This meth- 
od is applicable in all cases when transferring measure- 
ments from one shoulder to another, whether in staffs, 
pinions or other work having shoulders. 

Having located the collet shoulder, we proceed to rough 
out the top pivot. In the same way we now locate the collet 
seat, as shown at A y Fig. 146, and turn this down approxi- 
mately to size. We are now ready to fit the balance on its 
seat. The balance should fit snugly on the staff. We now 
proceed to turn down the collet shoulder to size (leaving 
sufficient material for the final finish), and undercut for the 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 183 

balance riveting, as indicated at B, Fig. 146. The bearing 
for the collet should, not be made tapering, but should be 
cylindrical throughout; but rather than have the lower end 
smaller than the upper, it would be better to have a very 
slight taper. If, however, we can turn it perfectly cylin- 
drical, it is better, because the staff is to be held in the chuck 
by this portion when it is reversed for turning the lower end, 
and if perfectly cylindrical the chuck will hold it more ac- 
curately than if it had ever so slight a taper. 

Up to this point we have used only the two gravers shown 
at Fig. 145 and Fig. 147. These two gravers are ground to 
a 30 cutting face and were originally identical, both being 
lozenge shaped, but it will be noted that the graver shown 
at Fig. 145 differs only from Fig. 147 in having the point 
broken or ground off to a trifle less than 90 , as shown in 
the diagram. Some writers aver that this angle should be 
90 exactly, their reason being that they can turn with two 
cutting edges at one time, leaving a square shoulder. This 
theory we wish to condemn, as there are but very few shoul- 
ders, in actual practice, that require to be exactly square ; 
in fact, all shoulders should be undercut very slightly, as 
those that require to be very sharp and clean can only be 
made so by the final polish of the revolving lap. The shoul- 
ders for the roller and balance should be slightly undercut, 
so that the bearing points will be at the outer edge of the 
shoulders on the staff, which will bring the roller and bal- 
ance up true in the flat when they are staked on the staff. 
Should the roller or balance be slightly out of the flat, or 
thicker at the center, they will then still be truly seated on 
the staff, which would not be the case were the shoulder on 
the staff left square. 

The T rest should be moved as closely to the work as pos- 
sible, the balance seat being turned with the graver held in 
the ordinary manner. In turning the seat for the collet, 
the graver is held so as to allow its point to undercut for the 
riveting of the balance to its seat at the same time the corner 



184 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

is squared. Ordinarily, among watchmakers, the sides of 
the collet shoulder are left straight and cylindrical, but if 
the cut shown at B, Fig. 146, is made, it will be found to 
materially improve the appearance of the staff after the 
riveting is done. To make this cut, take a graver with a 
long and keen point. 

Now proceed to turn down the pivot to size, allowing, 
say, 1-1000 of an inch for the final polishing. This is done 
with a graver similar to Fig. 147, but with the back angle 
or point slightly rounded, so as to give a round cutting 
edge. We now come to one of the difficult propositions, 





Fig. 147. Fig. 148. 

that of turning a perfect conical pivot. The majority of 
watchmakers, when making a conical pivot, taper it from 
the point of the pivot to the crest of the oil stop, as shown 
in Fig. 148. 

This form is decidedly unmechanical, non-theoretical and 
bad in practice, for it has a tendency to wedge the pivot in 
the jewel, and the bearing is constantly changing, owing to 
the necessary end shake for freedom. The pivot should be 
made cylindrical from the end up to the dotted line C in 
Fig. 146, and from this point on the cone should rise in a 
uniform curve to the crest of the oil stop. 

To turn this pivot, the graver should be rested on the T 
rest and gradually moved forward until the cylindrical por- 
tion has been cut, and then, without removing the graver, 
swing the handle around from you, towards the right, which 
will throw the point of the graver slightly towards you and 
to the left, and this movement will cut the cone at the base 
of the pivot. 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 185 

The pivot must be made neither too long nor too short; 
if made too long, the pivot is unduly weak and liable to 
break, and if too short, it is liable to rest in the jewel on 
the conical portion, and the resistance of the oil will be 
greater, especially if the oil sink in the jewel should be 
filled with oil. The length will depend, in a considerable 
degree, on the thickness of the jewel; if the jewel is thin, 
the pivot may be correspondingly shorter. An average pro- 
portion for the cylindrical portion of the pivot would be to 
make it three times as long as the jewel is thick. By the 
thickness of the jewel we mean the bearing proper in the 
hole jewel — that portion on which the pivot rests. 

The oil stop is turned out in two ways ; one is to under- 
cut, and the other to turn the shoulder back of it square and 
polish flat. This latter method we think is preferable, as it 
leaves a nicer finish. Chamfer off the corner of the collet 







Fig. 149. Fig. 150. 

shoulder, as shown at D, Fig. 146. This should never be 
neglected, for if you do you are liable to have trouble when 
you come to put the balance spring on. 

Now rough out the lower end of the staff, from the hub 
to the bottom of the pivot, being careful that the graver 
does not catch and that the metal is removed in very light 
cuts, to avoid springing the upper end. This work is per- 
formed with what is known as a cutting-off tool, which is 
illustrated at Fig. 149. This portion of the staff, although 
only roughed out, should be turned perfectly smooth, to af- 
ford a smooth bearing for truing up, when we reverse our 
staff in the chuck, as the work on the lower half of the staff 
will be done while the staff is held in the chuck by the por- 
tion DB, Fig. 146, and this is so short that it is trued up in 
the chuck by spinning, the same as is done with cement, be- 
fore the chuck is finally tightened. 



lS6 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

We now proceed to finish off and polish the upper end 
of the staff, as will be described in the chapter on pivot 
polishers, or we may polish it by hand if we have no pivot 
polisher. This we proceed to do by dressing down, first, 
with oil stone powder and oil applied by means of a bell 
metal or soft iron slip, formed as shown at Fig. 150. One 
side of this slip is left with a sharp corner, while the oppo- 
site side is slightly rounded. The sharp corner is for square 
shoulders, while the rounded side is for the conical portion 
of the pivot. The slip should be cross filed and made per- 
fectly flat with a No. 3 file, in order to hold the powder. 
Charge the slip with a very small quantity of the oil stone 
powder, and resting it on the end of the fingers of your left 
hand, place it lightly under the pivot, and as you push the 
slip forward move your hand from right to left, so as to give 
a circular motion to the slip, which will cause the lines to 
cross and recross each other, thus leaving the pivot smooth 
by grinding out all graver marks. This motion is to be 
given when grinding all portions except close up to the 
square shoulders, where the slip is to be moved back and 
forth, at right angles, so as to leave the surfaces smooth. 
The oil stop is finished with the sharp edge of the slip. 

Clean the work thoroughly with pith and alcohol, leaving 
no trace of the grinding material. Now, with a slip of the 
same form, but made of zinc, proceed to polish with dia- 
mantine. The end of the pivot is to be slightly rounded, 
rather than to be left flat. The best way to accomplish this 
is to use a stone slip cut from a fine, close grained stone, 
like jasper. The surface of this stone is to be ground dow r n 
until it has a polished surface, and is yet rough enough to 
slightly cut the metal, which still leaves the metal w T ith a 
polished surface. A person who once tries such a stone 
slip will not willingly be without it afterwards. 

We are now ready to cut off the staff from the end of our 
stock, leaving it sufficiently long to allow for the final ston- 
ing for length. The cutting off is best effected with a 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 187 

sharp-pointed graver. Select a chuck which will fit the 
collet shoulder, bearing in mind what has been said about 
the use of half sizes where accurate work is desired, Fig. 33, 
Chapter III, and putting the work in the lathe, proceed to 
stone it off with an Arkansas stone slip; to the required 
length. Next loosen the chuck a little, true up your work 
in the chuck by means of a piece of pegwood, shaped to 
use conveniently, resting it on the T rest. If the staff does 
not run true at first, change its position in the chuck until 
the outer end of the pegwood shows little or no vibration. 

When this has been accomplished, tighten the chuck again 
and proceed to turn down and finish the lower end, being 
careful that no unnecessary force is used which might spring 
the staff or throw it out of true. Proceed with the final 
turning down, grinding and polishing, as described in mak- 
ing the upper end. 



CHAPTER XL 

GRINDING, POLISHING, SNAILING, DAMASCENING. 

The pivot polisher is an outgrowth of the desire to save 
time by securing a continuous and rapid motion of the lap 
in the reverse direction from that in which the work is re- 
volved. So far as we are able to ascertain the first form of 
polisher was adapted to be used in the tool post of the lathe, 
and was invented by C. Hopkins Van Norman of the 
Waltham Watch Tool Co. about 1872. This polisher was 
run with the spindle in the upright position, as shown in 



Fig. 151. The Original Hopkins Pivot Polisher of 1872. 

Fig. 151, and the flat face of the lap was brought up to the 
under side of the pivot. It was simple in construction and 
worked nicely although it was soon found advisable to de- 
part from the method described. Polishing from the under 
side of the work was universally practiced at that time 
with hand polishers or bell metal slips, sapphire files, etc., as 
it was the easiest method of allowing the watchmaker to see 
what he was doing while working, and the new device 
naturally met with less opposition by following the accepted 
methods. Its capabilities were soon perceived, and in 1882 
the much more elaborate device shown in Fig. 152 suc- 
ceeded it. 

This consists of a separate shoe, carrying a turn-table, 
graduated in degrees, on which is mounted a yoke pivoted 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



l8 9 



at the bottom and carrying an accurately ground traverse 
spindle, with stops to regulate the amount of oscillation of 
the yoke. The end of the spindle was taper ground, inside 
and out, so as to carry laps, cutters, fraises, etc., and idler 




Fig. 152. Hopkins Pivot Polisher. 



pulleys allowed a considerable movement of the traverse 
spindle without interfering materially with the tension of 
the driving belt. This design has remained practically un- 
changed to the present day. The idle pulleys have been de- 




Xo. 153. Moseley Pivot Polisher. 



tached and carried further up so as to permit of swinging 
the spindle further from the line of centers of the lathe ; 
micrometer attachments have been added to the spindle, so 
as to give a definite feed and thus permit of grinding to 



190 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

exact size. Some manufacturers have mounted it on the 
slide rest ; others have retained the shoe. It has steadily 
grown stronger in construction as its manifold capabilities 
as a drill, milling machine and grinder have caused it to be 
subjected to harder work than polishing pivots, but its gen- 
eral design has been unchanged. 

The spindle and its bearings are the important parts to be 
looked after, and in the best makes these are made of tool 
steel, hardened and tempered ; then after being ground be- 
tween dead centers with a parallel grinder, they should be 
ground again by what is known as lead grinding, if the 



Fig. 151. Moseley Parallel Grinder, which can also be used as a Pivot 
Polisher held in Tool Post of Slide Rest. 

greatest accuracy is desired. The bearings for such a 
spindle should be of hardened steel and fit the spindle ac- 
curately. The inside and outside tapers at the end of the 
spindle should be finally ground while the spindle revolves 
in its own bearings, thus securing the greatest possible 
accuracy in them. For driving, a small, round belt, smooth 
and pliable, is used, and may run direct from the speed 
wheel on the counter shaft to the small pulley on the pol- 
isher spindle. A better way, however, is to use an idler fix- 
ture, running the belt up over the pulleys and down to the 
spindle, as by this method of belting we can move the 
spindle to a greater extent without appreciably changing the 
tension of the belt. The piece which supports the spindle 
is jointed to the base piece so as to permit of its being vi- 
brated to and fro, thus smoothing the work, and by means 
of a stop the extent of this vibration may be limited, while 
at the same time it gives us the means of a delicate feed, 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



I 9 I 



which is necessary when feeding to the spindle. A delicate 
spring is so arranged as to hold the lap away from the 
work and give a pressure in a direction opposite to that 
of a pressure by the hand upon the small finger piece which 
is used to bring the lap into contact with the work. 

One very important factor which seems to have been 
overlooked by some of the makers is a stop, by means of 
which the traverse of the spindle may be limited, as the 
needs of the work require. This stop, in some form or 
other, is absolutely indispensable, if we desire the greatest 




Fig. 155. Rivett Pivot Polisher, to be held in Graduated Tool Post of 
Rivett Slide Rest. 

possible accuracy in the work, which is one of the principal 
points recommending the use of this attachment. Imagine 
a person, however steady his hand, holding such a spindle to 
its work, with no solid stop, so as to give no error greater 
than 1-10000 of an inch, yet with a properly made tool this 
is easily accomplished ; in fact, this should be about the limit 
of error permitted in fine work. An adjustment must be 
provided by which the center of the polisher spindle may be 
placed above or below that of the center of the lathe spindle. 
In some makes, which fasten on the slide-rest, there is no 
adjustment provided, but it may be raised the necessary 
amount by placing rings of different thicknesses under it. 
A good assortment of laps is necessary to secure the best 
results and all should be made of the same diameter to 
avoid the necessity of moving the fixture after it is once 
set, when using more than one lap. 



I92 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

In using the polisher, see that it fits the shoe of your lathe 
and that the shoe is in position and has no dirt under it. 
This precaution brings the spindle parallel with the line of 
centers of the lathe when the index on the graduated circle 
is at O. In this position it may be used to grind parallel 
if desired or you have the correct starting point from which 
to set the machine to grind a known angle. 

In grinding, the position of the spindle with reference to 
the line of centers depends upon the shape of the laps which 




Fig. 156. Rivett Pivot Polisher and Grinder Mounted in Slide Rest. 

you are using. Some men prefer to turn cylindrical laps 
and then to finish the ends to such a curve that they will 
form perfectly coned pivots when held parallel to the pivot. 
If charged with perfectly graded diamond powder, by roll- 
ing between two pieces of hard steel, such a lap will do good 
work for a surprisingly long time. If the laps are dished 
or coned so as to grind only on the end of the lap the 
spindle must be turned at right angles to the line of centers 
and the end of the lap will grind the straight part of the 
pivot while the edge of the lap grinds the cone. In such 
a case the cone is made longer or shorter by altering the 
height of the polisher spindle. To make the cone longer, 
raise the spindle ; to make it shorter, lower it. 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



*93 



In grinding a taper it is necessary always to set the 
center of the lap at the same height as the lathe center. 

If the turning has been skillfully done, so that it is 
smooth and within .03 MM. of the required size a fine brass 
or soft bell metal lap, used with diamantine and oil, will 
grind and polish at the same time, making the use of other 
laps unnecessary. Originally it was thought necessary to 
use a steel lap charged with oilstone powder for grinding; 
this was followed by a bell metal lap and coarse crocus ; 
and then by either a tin lap with rouge and oil, or one of 
boxwood and Vienna lime with oil. Many still use one or 
more of these and they are all good. 




ggS 

Fig. 157. Webster Whitcomb Pivot Polisher. 

In using any of them care should be taken to keep the laps 
constantly moving forward and back in order to avoid the 
formation of grooves and ridges. The operator should be 
careful also riot to let the work get dry or a black scum will 
fill up the surface of the metal, spoiling its appearance. 
This is especially important in snailing or damascening, as 
here the appearance of the work is the only reason for 
undertaking it at all, and if a bright and lively play of light 
is not secured on the finished work it had better be left plain. 
Use a lap charged with evenly graded diamond powder on 
such work and keep it well flooded with oil, washing off the 
black with fresh oil as fast as it forms, and success is 
certain. 

For the snailing we would advise a special set of five laps, 
made of brass, fitted to the taper hole of the spindle. These 



JSM 



THE AMERICAN' LATHE. 



laps are smaller than the regular, hut cupped in the same 
manner and charged with either diamond powder, or a dn- 
ferent grade of emery for each lap. These laps should be 
used for this purpose only. To do the snailing, select the 
lap to be used, put in the spindle, release the thumb nut 
under the bed. raise up the shoe and stick an ordinary pin 




Showing Correct Position for 



Fig. 158. Hardinge Pivot Polisher 

Grinding and Polishing. 

under it and then re-fasten the nut. This tips the spindle 
so that onlv the edge of the lap strikes the wheel. The lathe 
must then'be put on its slowest speed. The lap must run 
in the opposite direction that the lathe spindle does. The 
lap should run fast and the work slow. A little practice is 
all that is necessary to do good work. The style of the 
work may be changed almost without limit, by changing 
the shapes of laps, and by making a wheel part polished and 
part snailed, and by changing the spindle by setting it at dif- 
ferent angles. 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



J 95 



Laps are made of various materials — soft steel, cast iron, 
bell metal, zinc, tin, ivory and box wood, the first four being 
sufficient for any job, however fine, and as they hold their 
form better than the other it will not be so difficult to keep 
them in shape. 

When using the pivot polisher every precaution must be 
taken to prevent any particle of the grinding or polishing 
material getting into the bearings, which would soon cause 




Fig. 159. Group of Laps, Cutters and Stones for Use in Pivot Polisher. 



them to wear and become unreliable for accurate work. If 
an emery or carborundum wheel is used, it should be a 
light one, and revolved in such a direction as to throw the 
particles downward; and to still further protect the bear- 
ings, when it can be done a cover should be made for them 
of some light cloth. Many of these particles are so small 
as to remain suspended in the air for some time, yet more 
or less of them will find their way into the bearings, even 
if we are as careful as we can be. Every precaution should 
be taken to keep the pivot polishing fixture in as good condi- 
tion as possible and it is better if none of the grinding 
wheels are used on it, but there are very few workmen who 
have a parallel grinder, so that it is very convenient to use 
the pivot polisher instead at times for truing up lathe 
centers, grinding and polishing the sides of wheels, barrels, 
winding squares, and a thousand other things. The liability 
of the particles to fly may be lessened by laying an oiled 
cloth beneath the grinding wheel to catch the cuttings, 
which will protect the lathe bed as well. In all operations 
of grinding or polishing, the two surfaces in contact must 



196 THE AMERICAN LATHE, 

always revolve in opposite directions, which will give an 
effective velocity equal to the sum of the two while if they 
revolved in the same direction it would only be equal to 
the difference. Laps of all kinds should be relieved, and 
must never be allowed to remain cylindrical throughout 
their entire length. 

By relieving the laps as stated, it also makes the truing 
up quicker and easier, which must be done as soon as they 
become untrue. The lap truing chuck is to be used for 
truing up the laps in the lathe and may also be used to 
true any grinding wheels that may be fitted to the polisher 
spindle, which is sometimes very convenient for grinding 
various tools. To true up a lap quickly mount it in the 
lathe on the chuck as stated and then grind or lap it with 
a stone or lap on the pivot polisher spindle. This is the only 
practical way to true a heavily charged diamond lap, al- 
though laps charged only with rouge, crocus or diamantine 
may be turned off and then ground to get the necessary 
truth and accuracy which counts for so much in using this 
tool. 

The pivot polisher is also an excellent milling tool, for 
milling out odd places in a plate or bridges, either for 
stem wind wheels or springs, where the part of a circle only 
is wanted to be removed. This is done by small milling 
tools fitting the hole in the spindle, with ratchet shaped 
teeth cut on their sides and ends, the sizes and shapes being 
made to suit the occasion, driven at high speed by the 
countershaft. They cut not only quickly but smoothly. 
Wheels may also be crossed out by these same tools. It is 
also a good tool for eccentric drilling, drilling index holes, 
etc. 

Never have the belt tighter than is necessary to prevent 
slipping. 

The best kind of oil to use for oiling the lathe or pivot 
polisher is pure sperm oil. 

Always wash the pivot polisher off in gasoline after 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 1 97 

using, and oil with sperm oil before using again. The work 
never wears out a tool, but dirt or foreign matter in the 
spindle invariably does. When a spindle is properly cared 
for the oil keeps clear and we can see through it while 
running. 

While the pivot polisher fixture is all that can be desired 
for turning out new work, it is at the same time unsuitable 
for repolishing old and worn pivots unless we have some 
way by^which we can mount our work so that the part to be 
refinished will run dead true, since unless it does run per- 
fectly true all parts of the work will not be concentric with 
each other after being refinished. If the work was originally 
made by a skillful hand and has not been in the hands of 
the botch it will not be a difficult matter to mount it in the 
lathe with a true and properly fitting split chuck. It will 
not suffice to have the work almost true for the reason given 
above. From the fact that much of the work coming in for 
repairs is not of a class where we may expect to find work 
where all parts are concentric one with the other, it is not a 
rare thing to find that try as we may, we cannot chuck it so 
that it will run true, yet at the same time it is not bad enough 
to throw away, for this is a class of work where it is to be 
expected that we will not find fine or accurate work, and 
besides in this same class of work it is very seldom we can 
get the customer to pay for the repairs which are actually 
necessary to make the work reasonably satisfactory, not to 
mention work which, while not absolutely necessary it would 
at the same time be advantageous to have done. In the above 
class of work it is of course, out of the question to use 
the pivot polisher fixture, so that the only resource left us 
is to do the work of repolishing by hand. By doing this 
work by hand, the polishing slip is able to follow the inaccu- 
racy of the work more or less perfectly and thus a job which 
will be reasonably satisfactory may be done. First of all the 
work should be mounted in the lathe and centered as per- 
fectly as it is possible to have it. If the pivot is badly cut 



1 98 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

so that rings are formed around it, it will be necessary to 
use a bell metal or soft steel slip with oil stone powder until 
the surface is perfectly smooth. The corners of the slip 
should be square or rounded according as the pivot has a 
square or conical shoulder. The oil stone powder should 
have been decanted so as to free it from all the coarse par- 
ticles, of which very many will be found in it, as usually 
sold. The decanted powder is mixed with oil until it forms 
a thick paste after which it is ready to use. The surface of 
the slip should be freshly sharpened by filing and a very 
small amount of the oil stone powder should be applied at a 
time, just an amount that is perceptible and renewing it 
again if necessary. Preparatory to using the polishing ma- 
terial the oil stone slip should be partially cleaned so that 
there remains but a slight trace of the grinding material, 
which leaves a surface that is all but polished. 

The work should revolve as rapidly as convenient and the 
to and fro motion of the slips should be somewhat slower 
so that the work may make several revolutions to each move- 
ment of the slip, which will avoid the forming of flat places 
on the pivot. The slips must not be drawn back and forth at 
a right angle to the center of the work but should cross and 
recross constantly at various angles to make the surface 
smooth. A jasper slip is far superior to that made of metal 
for smoothing pivots. It is formed in the same shape as 
that made of metal and should have two surfaces of varying 
grades for each style of pivot. They are made by grinding 
both of the surfaces perfectly flat and smooth, one being 
stopped just short of a polish while the other one is left 
somewhat coarser. 

Diamond being the hardest known substance, it may be 
used as an abrasive when others would fail. It is used in the 
form of powders of various grades of fineness, by allowing 
the crushed pieces to settle after being suspended in oil. As 
the larger and heavier particles will settle first we have in 
this method a means of separating the coarser from the finer 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. I 99 

particles by allowing them to stand a greater or less length 
of time. The powder is made from small diamonds, chips 
and such pieces as have no great commercial value, and 
pulverizing the pieces in a mortar made up specially for the 
purpose. The principal use of the diamond is to charge 
discs of various substances called laps, which carry the par- 
ticles of powder imbedded on their surface. When the lap is 
to be used for grinding away a quantity of metal it is usu- 
ally made of copper, although any other soft and tough 
metal may be used ; but if it is for polishing it is made of 
ivory, boxwood,, tortoise shell, or celluloid, and the pow T der 
is the very finest. To make a diamond lap, turn out the lap 
to the required form and charge it with the diamond powder 
by forcing the particles into it with a piece of steel as hard 
as it is possible to make it. When charging such a lap a 
hammer or roller may be used to imbed the diamond powder, 
but whatever method is adopted, it should be carefully done, 
so that the particles will remain permanently imbedded. A 
well-charged diamond lap will retain its size longer than 
any other form of cutter, and can be used in many places 
where any other material would fail. But the appearance of 
the work done by such a lap is entirely dependent upon hav- 
ing the powder with which it is charged entirely even in size. 
Any coarser particles imbedded in a lap will make scratches 
on the work. 

Carborundum is a product of the electric furnace, and 
is so hard that it has, to a considerable extent, taken the 
place of diamond powder. When carborundum is used in 
the form of a powder it must be mixed with oil and applied 
to the lap in small amounts. It may be purchased from the 
material dealers in various grades of fineness, up to the 
thirty minute powder, which is very fine. It must never 
be used to finish any of the wearing surfaces, as owing to its 
extreme hardness small particles are liable to be left im- 
bedded even in the hardest steel. Even the finest carbo- 
rundum powder will not leave a perfect polish on steel, but it 



200 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

makes a beautifully grained appearing surface on tempered 
steel which contrasts nicely with a dead black polish. 

Corundum and emery are natural products of the earth, 
but as they are inferior to carborundum they are now but 
little used by watchmakers. 

Oil stone powder is used in the same manner as carbo- 
rundum, and wearing surfaces may be finished with it so as 
to be almost polished. It is about the only abrasive that 
should be used in finishing bearings. 

Diamantine. For polishing steel work this polishing 
agent answers all the requirements for producing a fine 
dead black polish. It is put up in two grades No. I and 2. 

No. 2 is the finer, and will take the place of No. 1 in 
watch work. It is mixed with watch oil to form a stiff 
paste, on either an iron or a glass plate, with a knife 
blade or a piece of steel, and the plate must be provided 
with a suitable, close fitting cover to exclude all dust or 
foreign substances. The cover should not be removed 
except when actually necessary to use the diamantine. 
When beginning to mix it with the oil but a very small 
amount is necessary, for as the mixing nears completion 
it becomes thinner, so that what at the start would appear 
too small an amount of oil will be found sufficient when 
finished. A lap of bell metal will be sufficient in ordinary 
work, but if the finest polish is desired a zinc or tin lap 
should be used. 

Vienna lime is a pure anhydrous lime, obtained, as its 
name indicates, from Vienna. It is extensively used in 
the watch factories for the final polishing of steel, but while 
in such cases it is very satisfactory, as there is no difficulty 
in keeping it fresh owing to the quantity used, such is not 
the case where a bottle, if the entire contents could be uti- 
lized, would be sufficient to last for a considerable time. 
Simple abrasion does not seem to be the only effect pro- 
duced, for unless the lime is used while it is slacking the 
results are not satisfactory. It should therefore be kept in an 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 201 

air-tight place away from the light, taking out only enough 
for immediate use. Take a hard, solid lump that can not be 
mashed in the fingers, the harder it is the better the polish, 
and with a knife cut down as much as is necessary for the 
job; moisten it with alcohol to form a thin paste and apply 
to the work on a piece of peg wood or box wood. But a 
few strokes are necessary and the polishing should be 
stopped before the lime is entirely dry and the work wiped 
off with pith. 



CHAPTER XII. 

MULTIPLE EDGED TOOLS FOR CONTINUOUS CUTTING. 

The chief advantage of the American lathe over its fiddle- 
bow predecessor is its gain in the time necessary to do 
work; ease of operation, truth, accuracy, solidity, etc., all 
being time-saving accomplishments merely, where the stan- 
dard of work remains the same. Probably many watch- 
makers have never looked at the matter in just this light, 
but after all is said it simmers down to just that. Accurate 
work was and is done on the fiddle-bow lathe; the ease of 
operation of the modern methods simply saves the strength 
and nervous energy of the operator, in order that he may 
have them available for more work in a given time; the 
certainty with which an angle is obtained when desired 
merely obviates a series of tests for truth which the older 
methods required. Time is the only gain — time and the con- 
sequently greater earning power of the watchmaker who has 
a full outfit of tools and thoroughly understands their use. 

So, too, with the tools which we are about to describe the 
chief gain is in time; a properly formed counterbore with 
eight cutting edges will do the work in one-fourth of the 
time taken by the older tool with two edges, will stay cen- 
tral and make a cleaner, rounder hole ; - the milling cutter 
is a better tool than the fly cutter, for the same reason, pro- 
vided that it is properly made and kept sharp. Another im- 
portant consideration is that the tool will maintain its size 
and shape as much longer as it has more cutting edges. 
Where a tool is of such a size and character that it may be- 
come standard, this is an important consideration, especially 

202 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 203 

in cutters for wheels and pinions, as a fly cutter unless made 
and kept sharp by an expert, changes its size (and often 
changes its shape also) every time it is ground. These 
are the considerations which have led to the discarding of 
the fly cutter in the machine shop and which are now putting 
the planer and shaper out of business, in favor of the milling 
machine in many shops. The gain of time involved should 
be equally important to the watchmaker; if he does not 
think so, let him, if on salary, go upon piece work and then 
see what time means to him. It means just as much to the 
man who hires him on a salary and his salary is fixed by the 
amount of time he takes on the succession of jobs which 
make up a day's work. 

There are certain characteristics which are common to all 
cutters, fixed or rotary ; these are clearance, rake and shape 
of the cutting edge. If the reader will turn to Chapter IX 
and read what is there said as to rake, clearance, etc., he will 
see that a milling cutter is simply a collection of such tools 
arranged about a common center. The tool is sharpened 
upon its top, for the same reason that the top A, Fig. 120, is 
ground. The rake is measured from the radial line passing 
from the center of the cutter to the point of the tooth. In 
circular cutters this rake should be very slightly negative 
to prevent the teeth from digging in and causing chattering 
or gouging. Cutters when purchased usually have no rake, 
this angle being 90 degrees ; if it digs, stoning or grinding 
off one degree, making the angle 89 degrees, will usually 
give a very smooth-running cutter for steel. This negative 
rake should be increased for brass. 

The clearance angle, B A C, Fig. 120, is also duplicated 
in the milling cutter, but is subject to some modifications. If 
there is space enough between the teeth of the cutter to 
allow the chips to curl out freely, as shown in Fig. 119, the 
clearance (called backing off) of the teeth in such a cutter 
may be very little, possibly two degrees, generally not more 
than five degrees for steel, or ten for brass. If, however, 



204 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



the teeth are so close as to follow one another like a saw, 
they must have a greater clearance angle (from forty to 
sixty degrees), because we are now combining the clearance 
and the space for chips and it must be large enough to ac- 
commodate the chips or they will interfere with the cutting 
edge of the succeeding tooth. When this happens the cut- 
ter is said to be choked and it will spring away from the 
work, or spring the work. 

Having now found our rake and clearance angles in any 
revolving cutter, just as in the single cutter, we will next 
consider the shape of the cutting edge. Either the single 
tool or the milling teeth may be made to cut on more than 
one side and in curved or straight lines. The single tool is 
filed or ground to shape. The other is turned in the lathe 
to give the desired shape of cutting edge before the planes 
of top rake and clearance are cut, otherwise they are similar. 

The cutters are hardened in the same way and drawn to 
the same color. They may be most effectively sharpened 
with a thin, flat, soft iron or copper diamond lap whose 
edge is turned or ground to fit the angle formed by the rake 
and clearance planes of the tooth and the lap charged only 
on the side next the rake of the teeth, as that is the side 
to be ground. If the cutters are large enough to admit the 
entrance of an oil stone or fine carborundum wheel between 
the teeth, either will be found effective, but the smaller ones 
are most effectively sharpened with the diamond lap. Either 
stone or lap may be mounted on the arbor of the wheel cutter 
and the necessary care taken to preserve the angles of rake 
and clearance of the cutters as originally made. This can 
be readily done by proper adjustment of the graduated turn 
table and the index pin of the divided head on the pulley of 
the lathe. Unless the cutters are constantly used, they will 
not require sharpening more than once in six months, per- 
haps not over once a year, so that the trouble taken to 
mount the wheel cutting attachment for sharpening is not 
so great as it seems, particularly as a number of cutters may 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



205 



be sharpened while the lap or stone is mounted and ready 
for operation. In this way the shape of the cutter and its 
working qualities are preserved. Cutters too small to be 
sharpened successfully are used like files, i. e., thrown away 
when worn out, and new ones made. 

Having thus briefly surveyed the multiple edged tools, we 
will now turn our attention to the single edged revolving cut- 
ter, or fly cutter. This is a most important tool for the 
reason that it is quickly and cheaply made and is sufficient 
to do a large amount of work; it is therefore the form 
which is usually; selected when only one wheel or pinion is to 
be made. It gives a greater freedom for chips than any 
other cutter and is therefore largely used for working 
brass, copper and other metals of a tough and fibrous 
nature, so that the chips roll up and curl around the tool and 
the edges of the work; speed and clearance are the prime 
necessities in such metal and the fly cutter is therefore the 
best adapted for such work. 

The first requisite in making up fly cutters is to determine 
upon a standard size of shank, as the watchmaker will need 
many of them and they should all fit the holes in the cutter 
arbor and thus allow of the use of one holder for many cut- 
ters. This being determined, turn out four flat discs of steel, 
for collars, thick enough so that there will be plenty of metal 
left after drilling and of such a diameter that the tool may 
be firmly held between their outer circumference and the 
hole for the cutter arbor. See Fig. 160. Make the center 
hole so as to be a snug fit on the arbor of the wheel cutter, 
and relieve the edges of the hole. Then take an arbor chuck, 
(See Figs. 90 to 92), and make an arbor on it of the same 
size as that of the wheel cutter, so that the collars will fit it 
exactly as they do on the cutter arbor. Place two of these 
collars on the arbor and bolt them up firmly. Set the index 
pin at zero in the lathe head. Place a drill in the pivot pol- 
isher and drill a hole through the two collars half way 
between the center and circumference. Turn the index to 



2o6 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



1S0 and repeat the operation; do the same with the other 
pair of collars. These holes are for steady pins and the 
pins should be made to fit tightly in one collar and loosely 
in the other of each pair, so that the collars will go together 






Fig. 160. 

readily but will not turn after getting in position. Now place 
one set of collars on the chuck with a piece of paper between 
them and set the index pin to stop the lathe head. Place in 
the pivot polisher spindle a drill of the same size as the stock 
for your fly cutters; center this drill accurately and then 
turn the pivot polisher spindle to 90 degrees and drill a hole 
exactly between the two collars, so that when they are sep- 
arated half the hole will be in each collar, as shown in Fig. 
160. Make it deep enough to hold the fly cutter firmlvc 
Separate the collars and throw away the paper. This 
pair of collars is for the cutter arbor and they will 
hold the cutters firmly in any position. Mount the other pair 
of collars on the chuck with paper between them and lower 
the pivot polisher so that the hole will be below the center 
and will therefore make an angle with a radius drawn from 
the center; have the hole the same size and depth as in the 
other pair. These collars are to be used on the chuck for 
turning up fly cutters. 



THE AMERICAN LATHE, 207 

To make a fly cutter take a piece of round wire, place it in 
the hole and clamp the collars firmly. Turn off a flat side 
on the wire, longer than the length of the cutting edge and a 
little wider. This flat side is to be the front of the cutter. 
Loosen the collars ; turn the wire a little more than 90 de- 
grees, so as to give the necessary clearance, clamp it tightly 
again, and turn up one-half the shape of the tooth, including 
the end of the tooth ; turn the wire again so as to give the 
same clearance on the other side of the tooth and make that 
side of the cutter. Harden and draw to a straw color. Such 
a cutter will retain its size and shape (if ground only on the 
flat side) until it is ground too thin to be of further service 
All cutters made from the same size of wire will fit the 
collars on the cutter arbor and they may be readily changed 
without loss of time in adjusting when roughing and finish- 
ing cutters are to follow each other. The amount of ma- 
terial is practically nothing, simply a bit of round wire, and 
the time taken is the least possible. If the wire is of generous 
size the cutter will be thick enough to do rapid work for 
years without springing. The amount of backing off, or 
clearance angle, of the tooth depends upon the angle formed 
with the center in drilling the collars for the chuck, and as 
all curves are formed by turning, their shapes and relative 
distances remain practically the same, if the cutter is ground 
on the front only. It will get shorter as it wears back, but 
the shape of the tooth will be unchanged. 

Such fly cutters are extremely useful in making up 
rotary cutting tools, such as are shown in enlarged form in 
these pages, and they have the advantage that they may be 
kept as master tools on such patterns as are used sufficiently 
to wear out quickly, thus enabling a worn cutter to be re- 
placed without loss of time. This is particularly important 
on cutters which are too small to sharpen them successfully, 
such as the burrs, which are thrown away as soon as they 
become dull. 

To make a cheap and effective cutter for wheels and 



20S THE AMERICAN LATHE, 

pinions in watch and clock repairing perhaps the method 
devised by D. H. Church, of the Waltham Watch Company, 
is more readily available to the average watchmaker than 
any other which could well be devised. In this cutter the 
backing off, or angle of clearance of the teeth, is produced 
by making a number of saw cuts tangent to the circum- 
ference and extending well towards the center, as shown in 
Figs. 161 to 165. The teeth are then bent back until the 
sawed slot is closed at its rear end and thus furnishes a sup- 
port for the back of the tooth. This is accomplished between 
collars, to keep the teeth in line and prevent their springing 
sidewise. The amount of clearance is governed by the thick- 
ness of the sawed slots and is uniform if properly done. If 
the cutter is thin it may have the teeth closed in a vise and 
any portions which are bruised or marred may be cut off in 
making the spaces for chips. It is then hardened between 
washers, to prevent the teeth from springing in hardening, 
after which the collars are removed and the rake of the 
teeth ground as desired. Very heavy cutters have their 
backs cut away to form a step or bearing, as shown in our 
illustration of a heavy cutter, Fig. 161, and a pair of spring 
tongs is adjusted in the vise so that their jaws bear on these 
steps, thus bending the teeth far enough to close the slots 
without marring the teeth. 

The center holes of milling cutters should fit the arbor 
closely at their center but should never be a snug fit at the 
outsides of the hole. All such holes are curved outward 
from the center on each side, as is shown in the sections of 
Figs. 161 to 164, so that the cutter may adjust itself flat and 
true with the collar on the center arbor, which it might not 
do if a snugly fitting center hole was not perpendicular to the 
sides ; such a cutter would wabble. 

Very thin leaves of pinions on accurate work are often cut 
"straddle"; that is with the cutter placed exactly over the 
tooth and cutting the shape of the tooth and half the space 
on each side of it as shown in section at Fig. 162. The 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



209 




B 




Fig. 161. 



Fig. 162. 




Fig. 163. 




mm mm> 



Fig. 164. 



■ rfg fc , 




( < ■> CZZO < D 



tn 




Fig. 165. 



2TO THE AMERICAN LATHE, 

advantage here is that there is no side strain to spring a thin 
leaf, as all of the pressure is downward. Such pinions, 
however, cannot be cut with radial flanks. We show a pinion 
at Fig. 166 with one tooth cut in this way and those on each 
side cut with radial flanks in order to show the difference. 
Such cutters must be made the shape of the tooth, instead of 
being the shape of the space, and those who attempt to make 
them will find an enlarged drawing to scale a great time- 
saver in getting the curves and angles right. Sometimes 
the cutters are made in halves, as shown in the sectional 
drawing, Fig. 162, and then a thickness or two of tissue 
paper placed between the halves will materially alter the 
thickness of the leaf, making the cutter available for several 
different pinions on coarse work. We do not recommend 
this method, but merely note the fact that it is done, as 
we are not discussing the shapes and proportions of gear 
teeth here and we take it for granted that the student will 
inform himself on that subject from other works. 

Reference to the greatly enlarged view of a section of a 
wheel and pinion (Fig. 166) will show that if we follow 
the ordinary method of making the cutter suit the space, we 
shall have a straight front edge, a straight flare to the pitch 
line, a long curve from thence outward for the wheel and a 
much shorter curve (nearly a half circle) for the pinion. 
Properly cut, these are epicycloid curves ; practically we can 
approximate very closely to these curves by grinding a 
round wire, previously hardened, and cutting it off at a 
greater or less angle to serve as a cutting tool in forming 
these curves, as shown in Fig. 165. This hardened steel 
wire cutter is held in a tool holder, as shown, and the tool 
holder is bolted firmly in the tool post of the slide rest, with 
all slides set square to the line of centers of the lathe. Hav- 
ing previously turned the cutter smooth on both sides, bored 
and relieved the center and obtained the desired diameter, 
the special tool (Fig. 165) is placed at the proper distance 
from the center of the cutter and run in until the curve on 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



21 I 



Pinion oll% 





Wheel ifto. 



Fig. 166. A B Line of Centers; F. G., Pitch line of wheel; C D, Pitch 
line of Pinion. It will be noticed that one tooth of pinion is drawn 
with round bottom. 



212 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

one side is formed. It is then run out sufficiently to clear 
the disc, moved a sufficient distance to the left and run in 
again to form the curve on the other side. The curves are 
made equally distant from the center by counting the turns 
of the slide rest screw when withdrawing the cutter and 
then giving an equal number of turns in the opposite direc- 
tion when cutting the other side. The curves of the cutting 
edge of the wire will be alike if the wire is well ground and 
mounted so that the flat portion is level. Almost any curve 
may be closely approximated in this way, and the process is 
rapid, accurate and cheap. 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



2I 3 








Figs. 167 to 174 . Group of end and side cutting mills of shapes 
suitable for the watchmaker, enlarged to show construction. In cut- 
ting sinks, channels, crossing out wheels, etc., the work is held in the 
face plate, or on a cement brass and swung by hand to feed against 
the mill when cutting arcs of circles. Straight lines are cut by- 
moving the pivot polisher spindle with the work held by the index pin 
of the lathe. 



214 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



175 



176 



177 



178 



I 



179 180 

Figs. 175 to 180. Group of hand tools, nearly actual size. 




181 






Figs. 181 to 185. Counter-bores and Reamers, enlarged to show con- 
struction. 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



2l 5 




186 






1£9 





180 



191 



Fio-s 186 to 191. Enlarged views of milling cutters for use on wheel 
cutter" making tools shown in Figs. 100 to 191; cutting ratchet wheels 
and other purposes. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

WHEEL CUTTING ATTACHMENTS FOR THE WATCHMAKER. 

We now come to the machinery with which these cutters 
are used. The original wheel cutting engine is shown in 
Fig. 192. It was made of brass, with narrow gibs and 
slides and the cutters were carried on mandrels supported 
on centers. The work was held horizontally on the center 




Fig. 192. The original wheel cutting engine. 

of the index spindle by a clamp carried on a square upright 
post and the cutters were adjusted and fed by moving the 
slides at the right of the machine. The best thing about 
this machine was the large index plate. The sliding car- 
riage was too light in all its parts and wear and lost motion 
soon resulted if the machine had steady use. Heavy cuts 
would spring the tool carriage, and altogether it left much 

216 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 217 

to be desired. Many of these tools have been imported from 
Europe, but are nearly all discarded in favor of the modern 
attachments to the lathe. 

The early wheel cutting attachments to the American lathe 
carried the cutters on a vertical mandrel running between 
centers, as shown in Fig. 193, and the yoke for the mandrel 
was bolted to the lathe slide rest. This gave larger bearing 



Fig. 193. Early wheel cutting attachment with cutter on a mandrel 
running on centers. 

surfaces and firmer support to the mandrel, and hence was 
an improvement, but it still left much to be desired in the 
way of adjustability, and was therefore superseded by the 
modern, closely fitted, well supporter steel arbor, which is 
adjustable to all angles. 

With the modern Moseley, Webster- Whitcomb and Hop- 
kins wheel cutting attachments, the work to be cut is held 
in the chuck in the lathe spindle, while the cutters are 
mounted on an arbor carried on an adjustable knee which 
is bolted to the slide rest. Figs. 194 and 196 illustrate the 
various adaptations of the common principle. Either a large 
index with holes or smaller ones with notched edges is 
mounted on the lathe spindle at its rear end, the index being 
prevented from shifting on the spindle by a pin in the spin- 
dle which fits a slot in the center hole of the index and acts 
like a key and key way on an ordinary wheel and shaft. It is 



2l8 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 





Fig. 194. Hopkins Wheel Cutter bolted 
to Slide Rest. 



Fig. 195. Moseley 3-Spindle 
Wheel Cutter to bolt on slide 
rest; also made with one spin- 
dle ; the pump center shown at 
the rear is used to align the 
cutters with ench other and 
with the lathe center. 




Fig. 196. Webster Whitcomb Wheel Cutter mounted on slide rest in 
place of the top slide, which is removed, when desiring to use the 
wheel cutter. 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 219 

important that a close fit be secured here, as any looseness 
would result in angular motion between the spindle and in- 
dex, and thus cause irregular spacing of the teeth on the 
wheel that is being cut. The index is kept from turning 
by a latch (Fig. 197), which is inserted either in a hole on 
the underside of the lathe bed or in the T slot and adjusted 
so that the point of the latch will enter the slots or holes of 
the index. All these parts are shown in position at Fig. 198. 




Fig. 197. Latch for Index Plate. 

The Rivett lathe uses a different system, in which the 
work is held in a quill in the slide rest, which is turned 
vertically by means of an adjustable graduated knee carry- 
ing a shoe to fit the slide rest. (Fig. 199 to Fig. 201.) 

The wheel cutting attachment consists of the revolvable 
tailstock, quill and twelve index plates with spaces of the 
following numbers, 22, 26, 34, 48, 50, 54, 56, 60, 64, 72, 80 
and 84. The quill fits into the top of the slide rest in place 
of the tool holder, and has a spindle to take the same chucks 
as the head spindle. The index plate is kept in place by two 
lugs milled from the solid spindle, which makes it very firm. 
The revolvable tailstock fits the bed of the lathe and is se- 
cured to it with the same firmness as the headstock. The up- 
per part is made to fit the slide rest. The upright is so grad- 
uated that it can be set at any angle required, and there is 



220 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



also a slide with lateral feed for very fine adjustment. When 
the slide rest is to be used with the wheel cutting attachment 
the handle of the bottom slide is changed to the opposite 




Fig. 198. Webster- Whitcomb ready for work, showing large index 
plate, lathe, countershaft, idler pulle} T s, etc. The spindle of the wheel 
cutting attachment is shown horizontal for the purpose of cutting 
spiral stem winding wheels, the spiral being secured by swivelling the 
slide rest, the cutter acting upon the work on the upper side. When 
the cutter spindle stands vertically, for the purpose of cutting ordinary 
wheels and pinions, the belt would run direct from the countershaft to 
the spindle, and not over the idler. 



end before mounting it on the revolvable tailstock. Xo 
extra belting, pulleys or countershafts are needed. 

Index plates of the numbers needed for the average watch 
or clock may be purchased cheaply of any material dealer ; 
if not ordered at the time the wheel cutter is purchased, the 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



221 



size and make of lathe on which they are to be used should 
always be given. These index plates, with notches, are far 
more convenient than the large index plate, as mistakes in 
wheel cutting are frequent w T ith a large plate where the 
operator must count a number of holes in the plate every 




Fig. 199. Quill to go in Rivett slide 
rest, with index, latch and draw-in 
spindle for wheel cutting. 

Fig. 200. Graduated and adjustable 
knee to hold Slide Rest vertical for 
wheel cutting. 




Fig. 200. 



time he shifts the work for another cut, and such mistakes 
are very expensive to the man who is paying for the time 
of the workman who makes such a blunder. A notched in- 
dex of the right number of teeth is merely turned until the 
latch enters the next notch, making the liability to error 
much less. 

When very accurate index plates are needed these notches 
are made with one side radial and the other slanting about 
20 degrees, as shown in the index plate on the testing ma- 
chine (Fig. 202). This style of slot assures the greatest 



THE AMERICAN EATIIE. 



possible accuracy, because when the index finger enters a 
notch the radial side of a slot stands vertical, thus not easily 
permitting any chips to lie on it, while the other side, being 
at an angle, has a tendency to force the radial' side tight 




Fig. 201, Rivett lathe arranged for wheel cutting. 



against the index finger. Should a chip get between the 
angular side and the index finger it would not impair the 
accuracy of the divisions. This form of slot has another 
great advantage in that the wear is confined to the slanting 
side of the notch where it does not impair the accuracy 
of the work. Moreover, the accuracy being determined en- 
tirely by the radial side, the precision work is confined to 
that side. The inserted pieces shown are fitted very careful- 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



22^ 



ly and screwed in so that they may be hardened and easily 
removed if a mistake be made and too much removed from a 
piece in the final correction and testing. The lever shown 
in Fig. 202 has a proportion of forty to one. 

Pinhole index plates are made by polishing the surface, 
cutting a hair line circle on which to center the drilled holes, 
and laying them out with a pair of strong dividers (having 
hardened needle points) and a strong glass. Corrections 
are made by drilling out the hole, plugging it and drilling a 
new hole. 




Fig. 202. 



The 60-hole index on the pulley of the lathe spindle may 
also be used in cutting a number of index plates for use 
with the wheel cutter, as follows: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 
20, 30, 60. 

These methods are given for the sake of completeness, as 
it may happen that the watchmaker is thousands of miles 
away from a lathe manufacturer or material dealer, and 
where communications are irregular or badly interrupted, so 
that he must help himself out by making what he needs. 
Where this is not the case the workman will find it much 
better to buy his index plates from the manufacturers of 



224 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



the lathe he is using, as index cutting is about the most dif- 
ficult job a machinist can attempt unless he is already sup- 
plied with costly and accurate machinery for the purpose, 
when, of course, it becomes a simple matter. 

To make a dividing head get a piece of hard brass or soft 
steel y[ inch thick by 2>Vk long and 2 inches wide, as shown 
at A, Fig. 203. Next make the slot XX and rivet in a piece 










770. Z06 


tic. 2 t 


i 


fr( 


"' 'Br£)'""'\. °* 
\. 0» ./ '"' 




Fig. 205 to 209 Details of worm, worm wheel and index for dividing 
head to attach to a watchmakers lathe. 

about i l / 2 inches long that will fit the T slot in the lathe bed, 
as shown by dotted line in Fig. 203 ; then drill the hole B, 
and with the dividers at this point draw the arcs that make 
the sides of the slot C. Now make the hole for the screw F 
which is screwed into the lathe bed ; then make the block G, 
Fig. 204, which is held to the plate A, Fig. 203, by a knurled 
screw through the hole B. The block G is made of a piece 
of brass Y^ inch in diameter and % inch long with a piece 
of plate brass y% inch thick brazed to it as shown in cut. 

The block, Fig. 205, is made of brass or steel, 34x3/£ inch, 
with projection E made to fit the curved slot C, Fig. 203, 
and held in place by a knurled screw from the back side of 
the plate in the same way as the block G. Now it will be seen 
that these two blocks, when in position, hold the arbor H. Fig. 
206, the block, Fig. 205, being bored out at F to fit the end 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 225 

of arbor H, which is turned at 60 degrees taper. The arbor 
is 34 inch in diameter and the hole in block G is reamed to 
fit. The piece shown at K, Fig. 206, is of steel 1 3/g inches 
long by }i inch wide, and is held in position by the knurled 
nut S. It is shown in place at Fig. 210, the arbor H being 
flattened on two sides to fit the slot in piece K. The hole in 
the end of K is for the tube that holds an index pointer R. 

The index plate, Fig. 208, is held on the block G by two 
screws going through the holes YY in the plate and screw- 
ing into the block G, which is turned off on the end so as to 
leave a ring 1-16 inch high around the hole in the center to 
fit the index plate to. Now with the index on we can bring 
our index pointer, R, in the right position for any circle on 
the plate by loosening the knurled nut S and moving piece 
K. The worm J, Fig. 206, is held against the block G by 
the set screw N. The worm can be procured of any large 
hardware house or machine shop, also a gear, 32 pitch, 120 
teeth; then ream it out, to fit the drawing-in spindle of the 
lathe at T, Fig. 209 ; then file the notch M in the end of the 
lathe spindle and fit a piece of steel into the gear that will 
fit the notch M in the lathe spindle. This notch will not hurt 
the spindle in the least, but should anyone desire they might 
use a brass or fiber washer between the spindle and the 
drawing-in spindle when not using the gear. In Fig. 210 
we give a photograph of the whole machine erected in work- 
ing order. When in use the worm must be held tight to the 
gear and great care must be taken in boring out the gear 
to fit the spindle, or in turning down if made solid, for if it 
is out of true it will be a serious error. The index pointer R 
is held on the plate by the spiral spring at W. If we have no 
indexes to begin with we can put on a plate with only one 
hole in it and with this plate we can make five indexes, 
Nos. 4, 5, 8, 12 and 15, and with these numbers others can 
be made, using a perfectly centered drill in the pivot polisher 
to drill the index plate with while the plate is held by a taper 
in the lathe. All parts of the machine must be very nicely 
fitted to avoid error. 



226 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



INDICES AND NUMBERS OF TURNS FOR GEAR CUTTING 

WITH WORM AND WORM GEAR OF 120 TEETH. 

Numbers that are not divisible and numbers that cannot be di- 
vided so as to have an index less than 100 are omitted. 



IS 


0> x 


CO 


(A 


11 


<D M 


CO 


in 


1? 


4) X 


tn 


(A 




u x 


<w 


en 




3 £ 


c 
3 
H 








a 

3 

H 








a 

u 
3 

H 






u fl « 

U £ 


a 

3 

H 


X 


4 


An 


30 





86 


43 




17 


165 


n 





8 


255 


17 





8 


5 


44 


21 





87 


29 




11 


166 


83 





60 


256 


32 





15 


6 


14 


20 





88 


11 




4 


168 


7 





5 


258 


43 





20 


8 


ti 


15 





90 


3 




1 


170 


17 





12 


260 


13 





6 


9 


3 


13 


1 


92 


23 




7 


171 


57 





40 


261 


87 





40 


10 


Any 


12 





93 


31 




9 


172 


43 





30 


264 


11 





5 


12 


44 


10 





94 


47 




13 


174 


29 





20 


267 


89 





40 


14 


7 


8 


4 


95 


19 




5 


175 


35 





24 


268 


67 





30 


15 


Any 


8 





96 


4 




1 


176 


22 





15 


270 


9 





4 


16 


4 


7 


2 


98 


49 




11 


177 


59 





40 


272 


34 





15 


18 


3 


6 


2 


99 


33 




7 


178 


89 





60 


273 


91 





40 


20 


Any 


6 





100 


5 




1 


180 


9 





6 


275 


55 





24 


21 


7 


5 


5 


102 


17 




3 


182 


91 





60 


276 


23 





10 


22 


11 


5 


5 


104 


13 




2 


183 


61 





40 


279 


93 





40 


24 


Any 


5 





105 


7 




1 


184 


23 





15 


280 


7 





3 


25 


5 


4 


4 


106 


53 




7 


185 


37 





24 


282 


47 





20 


26 


13 


4 


8 


108 


9 




1 


136 


31 





20 


284 


71 





30 


27 


9 


4 


4 


U0 


11 




1 


188 


47 





30 


285 


19 





8 


28 


7 


4 


2 


HI 


37 




3 


189 


63 





40 


288 


12 





5 


30 


Any 


4 





112 


14 




1 


190 


19 





12 


290 


29 





12 


32 


4 


3 


3 


114 


19 




1 


192 


16 





10 


291 


97 





40 


33 


11 


3 


7 


115 


23 




1 


194 


97 





60 


292 


73 





30 


34 


17 


3 


9 


116 


29 




1 


195 


13 





8 


294 


49 





20 


35 


7 


3 


3 


117 


39 




1 


196 


49 





30 


295 


59 





24 


36 


3 


3 


1 


118 


59 




1 


198 


33 





20 


296 


37 





15 


38 


19 


3 


3 


120 


Any 







200 


5 





3 


297 


99 





40 


39 


13 


3 


1 


122 


61 





60 


201 


67 





40 


300 


5 





2 


40 


Any 


3 





123 


41 





40 


204 


17 





10 


304 


38 





15 


42 


7 


2 


6 


124 


31 





30 


205 


41 





24 


305 


61 





24 


44 


11 


2 


8 


125 


25 





24 


207 


69 





40 


306 


51 





20 


45 


9 


2 


6 


126 


21 





20 


208 


26 





15 


308 


77 





30 


46 


23 


2 


14 


128 


16 





15 


210 


7 





4 


310 


15 





6 


48 


4 


2 


2 


129 


43 





40 


212 


53 





30 


312 


13 





5 


50 


5 


2 


2 


130 


13 





12 


213 


71 





40 


315 


21 





8 


51 


17 


2 


6 


132 


11 





10 


215 


43 





24 


316 


79 





30 


52 


13 


2 


4 


134 


67 





60 


216 


9 





5 


318 


53 





20 


54 


9 


2 


2 


135 


9 





8 


219 


73 





40 


320 


8 





3 


55 


11 


2 


2 


136 


17 





15 


220 


11 





6 


324 


27 





10 


56 


7 


2 


1 


138 


23 





20 


222 


37 





20 


325 


65 





24 


58 


29 


2 


2 


140 


7 





6 


224 


28 





15 


328 


41 





15 


60 


Any 


2 





141 


47 





40 


225 


15 





8 


330 


XI 





4 


62 


31 




29 


142 


71 





60 


228 


19 





10 


332 


83 





30 


63 


21 




19 


144 


6 





5 


230 


23 





12 


335 


67 





24 


64 


8 




7 


145 


29 





24 


231 


77 





40 


336 


14 





5 


65 


13 




11 


146 


74 





60 


232 


29 





15 


340 


17 





6 


66 


11 




9 


147 


49 





40 


234 


39 





20 


342 


13 





5 


68 


17 




13 


148 


16 





15 


235 


47 





24 


344 


43 





15 


69 


23 




17 


150 


5 





4 


236 


59 





30 


345 


23 





8 


70 


7 




5 


152 


19 





15 


237 


79 





40 


348 


29 





10 


72 


3 




2 


153 


51 





40 


240 


4 





2 


350 


35 





12 


74 


37 




23 


154 


77 





60 


243 


87 





40 


352 


44 





15 


75 


5 




3 


155 


31 





24 


244 


61 





30 


354 


59 





20 


76 


19 




11 


156 


13 





10 


245 


49 





24 


355 


71 





24 


78 


13 




7 


158 


79 





60 


246 


41 





20 


356 


89 





30 


80 


4 




2 


159 


53 





40 


248 


31 





15 


360 


3 





1 


81 


27 




13 


160 


16 





12 


249 


83 





40 


364 


91 





30 


82 


41 




19 


162 


27 





20 


250 


25 





12 


365 


73 





24 


84 


7 




3 


164 


41 





30 


252 


21 





10 










85 


17 




7 



























THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



227 



The method of attaching the wheel cutting fixture to the 
lathe will be readily seen by referring to Fig. 198. Particu- 
lar care should be taken to have the piece which is being 
cut firmly secured upon an arbor or cemented or soldered 
to a chuck. When secured on an arbor with a nut or screw 
washers as large as can be used without being in the way 




Fig. 210. 



of the cutter should be put between the nut and the wheel, 
to be cut so that no unnecessary strain may come upon the 
teeth. The more firmly the work is secured the more posi- 
tive will be the truth of the cutting. Escape wheels for 
clocks will usually have to be cut with the "fly" or single- 
toothed cutter. The French clock "visible escapement" and 
chronometer escape wheels, and those like it are best cut by 
two or more cuts. The first being a plain slot of the width 
and depth wanted; the other being to cut the curve of the 
back of the tooth, which is done with a cutter shaped to 
correspond with the desired curve. Ratchet-pointed escape 



22S THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

teeth are cut with one cut, always turning the blanks back- 
ward that the tooth being cut may have the support of the 
uncut metal until the last one is reached, the pressure of 
the cutter being strongest in the sloping side of the tooth. 
Transmission ratchets having teeth cut both on the end 
and circumference should have the ratchet teeth cut first. 
Transmission ratchets with spiral teeth on the edge are cut 
thus : Turn the cutting spindle one-quarter round, so that 
it is horizontal. Turn the top slide of slide rest to the right 
15 degrees, set the cutter exactly over the center of the 
blank; the idler pulley stand must be used. See Fig. 198. 
Winding pinions are straight, or of 12 or 15 degree tapers. 
Cut with a ratchet cutter. Crown wheels are usually soft 
soldered to a brass cement chuck for cutting. If the teeth 
are highest towards the center (as the wheel is in the watch) 
turn both slides so that the handles are together. Then turn 
the top slide to the right 15 degrees and fasten it. Set the 
cutter as nearly right as possible and cut one tooth. If not 
deep enough turn the screw to the lower slide so to draw 
it toward you. All wheels with teeth highest in the center 
must be cut with the cutter on the further side of the lathe ; 
all others may be cut in front or over the blank. All ratchet 
teeth (steel wheels) have the knife edge of the cutter set in 
line with the center of the lathe spindle. In cutting steel 
wheels keep the cutter ivejl oiled. Grooved ratchets are cut 
in the ordinary wire chucks, first at one end and then at 
the other, the groove for the yoke spring being turned the 
last thing before tempering. Watch escape wheel blanks 
should be at least three times as thick as the finished wheel 
is to be (in order to stand the cutting) and soft soldered 
to a brass cement chuck, care being taken not to anneal the 
blank. In cutting a tooth that inclines drop the cutting 
spindle below the center of the lathe, or raise it above the 
center, using the front of the cutter as a guide. 

Sometimes wheels are cut with the cutter in the lathe 
chuck and the work staked on its pinions and held in the 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 229 

rounding-np tool. The rounding-up tool consists of a yoke 
adapted to bolt on the slide rest, having closely fitted male 
and female centers, the lower one of which works in the 
center of a snail-shaped table, or rest. Fig. 211 shows the 




Fig. 211. Rounding-up Tool Bolted on Slide Rest. 



attachment in position and Fig. 212 shows the attachment 
with a wheel on its pinion, resting on the table, with the 
table turned so that its edge supports the web of the wheel 
ready for work. The shape of the snail provides for sup- 
porting wheels of various sizes by turning it so that the 
cutter comes the right distance from the center. Wheels 
cut by this method are not recommended, as the spacing 
must be done by the eye and hand and only a workman of 
great skill can make them at all presentable. Wheels may, 
however, be duplicated in this way by laying the old wheel 
on top of the blank and using it as a guide. 

The proper use of the attachment is as a rounding-up 
tool, the chuck and cutter for this purpose being shown at 
Fig. 93. The cutters are cheap and it is best to buy them, 
but they may be made by turning up a soft steel blank to fit 
the teeth and then making a number of file cuts on the work- 
ing surface with a diamond pointed graver and then hard- 
ening. 

A very good way to avoid this work and get through 
speedily is to turn up a soft blank to fit the space and then 



230 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



charge it with diamantine and oil or fine diamond powder, 
the latter making a very smooth and fast cutting tool for 
this purpose. If properly made it is superior to the regular 
cutters in speed and smoothness of work. It is particularly 
advantageous on thin wheels, which are easily sprung when 
using the regular cutters, as the grinding by the lap throws 
less strain on the teeth and leaves a smoother surface. 

It is frequently observed that young watchmakers, and 
regretfully be it said that some of the older and more ex- 




Fig. 212. Rounding-up Tool, showing wheel and pinion in position for 

work on them. 



perienced ones, are rather careless when fitting wheels on 
pinions. In many cases the wheel is simply held in the fin- 
gers and the hole opened with a broach, and in doing this 
no special care is taken to keep the hole truly central and 
of correct size to fit the pinion snugly, and should it be 
opened a little too large it is riveted on the pinion whether 
concentric or not. Many suppose the rounding-up tool will 
then make it correct without further trouble and without 
sufficient thought of the irregularities ensuing when using 
the tool. 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



2 3* 



We will presume that in the drawing, Fig. 213, the wheel, 
as shown by the dotted lines, had originally been cut with 
its center at ra, but through careless fitting it had been 
placed on the pinion at o, and consequently is very much 
out of round when tested in the calipers, and to correct this 
defect it is put in the rounding-up tool. The cutter com- 
mences to remove the metal from tooth 7, it being the high- 
est, next the neighboring teeth 6 and 8, then 5 and 9, and 
so on until tooth 1 comes in contact with the cutter. The 
wheel is now round. But how about the size of the teeth 
and the pitch? The result of the action of the cutter is 



8, 







Fig. 213. Shows how a badly centered wheel is left by the rounding-up 

cutters. 



shown by the sectionally lined wheel. Many will ask how 
such a result is possible, as the cutter has acted equally 
upon all the teeth. Nevertheless, a little study of the action 
of the rounding-up cutter will soon make it plain why such 
faults arise. Naturally the spaces between the teeth through 
the action of the cutter will be equal, but as the cutter is 
compelled to remove considerable metal from the point of 
greatest eccentricity, i. e. at tooth 7 and the adjoining teeth 
to make the wheel round, and the pitch circle being smaller 



23- THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

the teeth become thinner, as the space between the teeth re- 
mains the same. At tooth I no metal was removed, conse- 
quently it remains in its original condition. The pitch from 
each side of tooth I becomes less and less to tooth 7, and 
the teeth thinner, and the thickest tooth is always found 
opposite the thinnest. 

In the case of a wheel having a large number of teeth 
and the eccentricity of which is small, such faults as de- 
scribed cannot be readily seen from the fact that there are 
many teeth and the slight change in each is so gradual that 
the only way to detect the difference is by comparing op- 
posite teeth. And this eccentricity becomes a serious mat- 
ter when there are but few teeth, as before explained, espe- 
cially when reducing an escape wheel. The only proper 
course to pursue is to cement the wheel on a chuck, or put- 
ting it in a step chuck or in any suitable manner so that it 
can be trued by its periphery and then opening the hole 
truly. This method is followed by all expert workmen. 

A closer examination of the drawing teaches us that an 
eccentric wheel with pointed teeth — as cycloidal teeth are 
mostly left in this condition when placed in the rounding-up 
tool, will not be made round, because when the cutter has 
just pointed the correct tooth (tooth No. 1 in the drawing) 
it will necessarily shorten the thinner teeth, Nos. 6, 7, 8, i. e., 
the pitch circle will be smaller in jdiameter. We can there- 
fore understand why the rounding-up tool does not make 
the wheel round. 

As we have before observed, when rounding-up an ecen- 
trically riveted wheel, the thinnest tooth is always opposite 
the thickest, but with a wheel which has been stretched the 
case is somewhat different. Most wheels when stretched 
become angular, as the arcs between the arms move outward 
in a greater or less degree, which can be improved to some 
extent by carefully hammering the wheel near the arms, but 
some inequalities will still remain. In stretching a wheel 
with five arms we therefore have five high and as many 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



2 33 



depressed parts on its periphery. If this wheel is now 
rounded up the five high parts will contain thinner teeth 
than- the depressed portions. Notwithstanding that the 
stretching of wheels is objectionable and is often unavoid- 
able on account of the low price of repairs, it certainly 
ought not to be overdone. Before placing the wheel in 
the rounding-up tool it should be tested in the calipers and 
the low places carefully stretched so that the wheel is as 
nearly round as can be made before the cutter acts upon it. 

It is hardly necessary to mention that the rounding-up tool 
will not equalize the teeth of a badly-cut wheel, and further 
should there be a burr on some of the teeth which has not 
been removed, the action of the guide and cutter in entering 
a space will not move the wheel the same distance at each 
tooth, thus producing thick and thin teeth. From what has 
been said it would be wrong to conclude that the rounding- 
up tool is a useless one, on the contrary, it is a practical and 
indispensable tool, but to render good service it must be 
correctly used. 

In the use of the rounding-up tool the following rules are 
to be observed : 

1. In a new wheel enlarge the hole after truing the 
wheel from the outside and stake it concentrically on its 
pinion. 

2. In a riveted but untrue wheel, stretch the deeper por- 
tions until it runs true, then reduce it in the rounding-up 
tool. The better method is to remove the wheel from its 
pinion, bush the hole, open concentrically with the outside 
and rivet, as previously mentioned in a preceding para- 
graph. But if the old riveting cannot be turned so that it 
can be used again it is best to turn it entirely away, making 
the pinion shaft conical towards the pivot, and after having 
bushed the wheel, drill a hole the proper size and drive it on 
the pinion. The wheel will be then just as secure as when 
riveted, as in doing the latter the wheel is often distorted. 
With a very thin wheel allow the bush to project somewhat 



234 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

so that it has a secure hold on the pinion shaft and cannot 
work loose. 

3. Should there be a feather edge on the teeth, this 
should be removed with a scratch brush before rounding it 
up, but if for some reason this cannot well be done, then 
place the wheel upon the rest with the feather edge nearest 
the latter, so that the cutter does not come immediately in 
contact with it. If the feather edge is only on one side of 
the tooth, which is often the case, place the wheel in the 
tool, so that the guide will turn it from the opposite side of 
the tooth ; the guide will now move the wheel the correct 
distance for the cutter to act uniformly. Of course, in 
every case the guide, cutter and wheel must be in correct 
position to insure good work. 

4. To obtain a smooth surface on the face of the teeth 
a high cutter speed is required, and for this reason it is ad- 
vantageous to drive the cutter spindle by a foot wheel. 

Fig. 214 shows a rounding-up tool adapted to be mounted 
in the T-rest where a workman has no slide rest. While 
we do not advise the watchmaker to try to get along with- 
out a slide rest, still if a man has no money he must make- 
shift as best he can and such a man will find the attachment 
shown above of considerable service to him. 

There is one use of this tool, which does not seem to be 
generally known in the trade. That is its use in grinding 
the faces of pallets, pallet stones, etc., when they have be- 
come cut or it is desirable to change the angle. By mount- 
ing a thin lap in the lathe chuck and holding the staff 
between the centers of the rounding-up tool these faces may 
be nicely polished or by a little manipulation they may be 
slightly rounded if desired. The work is done easily, quick- 
ly and in the proper plane if due care is taken in setting the 
lap and rounding-up tool. 

Escape wheels may have a circular lift given to their teeth 
in this way and with care all the teeth may be given a uni- 
form lift of just the desired curve. 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



2 35 




236 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

Very thin laps should be used so that each end of the 
anchor may be swung against the lap without resetting the 
attachments. If the pallets are stone the lap should be 
charged with diamond powder and they may be polished 
without change of lap if the diamond powder be uniform 
and sufficiently fine. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

TURNING AND PIVOTING LONG, THIN WORK WITH THE 

STEADY REST. 

There are several methods of doing the pivots on clock 
work, music boxes, etc., either of which will give good re- 
sults. One is to have a number of female tapers of varying 
sizes of holes with the upper halves ground away. These 
are fitted to the spindle of the tailstock and form a support 
for the end of the pivot when polishing pivots of such staffs, 
the work being done on the upper side of the pivot, which 
projects above that portion of the center which has been cut 
away. This necessitates having a number of such centers 
with varying sizes of holes to take different sized pivots. 
The work is held and rotated by an ordinary split chuck in 
the headstock spindle. 

Another method is an adaptation of the old method used 
in the Dracip Lathe, see Fig. 9, in which a wing projects 
from a stud held in the T-rest and the outer end of the 
work is supported by a hole drilled of the proper diameter 
in the wing. This leaves the end of the pivot free, but uses 
the rest, which we need to turn with, unless we buy another 
rest. We also need a number of such wings to accommo- 
date the great number of holes we shall need from time to 
time. 

To do away with both of these objections and retain the 
freedom of working on clock pivots and other work of a 
similar nature the machinist's follow rest has been adapted 
to the watchmaker's lathe. The follow rest of the machine 
shop, however, is carried on the side rest, so as to remain 
close to the tool and prevent springing. The steady rest is 

2 37 



»3» 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



clamped to the bed of the lathe and supports the work on the 
points of the three jaws. Such work is generally centered 
by adjusting the jaws to the circumference of the arbor 
while the pivot rests in a female center in the tail stock 
and after trying it for truth the tail stock is removed and the 
free end is then available for any work that may be desired 




Fig. 215. Design for steady rest, to be made by the watchmaker. 



to be performed on it. Pivots may then be turned up with 
the graver and T-rest, or they may be ground and polished 
with the pivot polisher, and when done they will be concen- 
tric with the arbor if the jaws of the steady rest were prop- 
erly adjusted. 

The steady rest should be set up with the projection of the 
base toward the headstock and the jaws nearest the end of 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



2 39 



the work to be done. This brings the jaws to the extreme 
end of the work, furnishes the best support and also allows 
the T-rest to be brought up close, where it will properly 
support the graver. The jaws should not be more than one- 
eighth of an inch in thickness, and thinner ones are fre- 
quently desirable. They are generally made up of hard 
brass, German silver or nickel; steel would scratch the 
work where they bear upon it in revolving. The standard 
may be made of iron or brass and should not be thicker 
than a quarter of an inch. Fig. 215 shows such a rest drawn 
full size with i~32d taken off in finishing the stock, which 
was a quarter of an inch at the start. Ways should be filed 
for the jaws to slide in, to prevent them from turning when 
being fastened and the jaws should fit these ways, to keep 
the points radial to the center. The key-hole slot in the 
base allows the bolt to be readily slipped in ; or the slot may 
be extended through the outer edge as a plain slot. The 
screw's for fastening the jaws should have washers under 
them. To facilitate the adjustment of the jaws I put wings 
on the set screws by slotting the heads and brazing in a piece 
of thin stock. 

Fig. 216 shows a self-centering back rest. The jaws are 
worked by an independent ring which is accurately made by 
special tools and which fits the body of the back rest very 
closely. This ring is operated by the handle, A, which fits 
the holes, B, in the ring. Everything is taken care of in 
this tool to make it first class. The jaws can be turned end 
for end, which gives it all the range desired, and they are 
locked by the thumb screw shown at the right. It is made to 
fit all standard lathes. 

A good lathe hand will never attempt to use a steady rest 
until he has the job turned perfectly round where the jaws 
will bear on it, because the jaws do not have, full contact 
with the shaft, and any irregularity at this point will appear 
when the other and adjacent parts of it are turned up. To 
do a good job with a steady rest it is best to have the jaws 



2 4 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



fit a considerable portion of the circumference of the shaft, 
as the tool leaves it, but not necessarily the finished size, un- 
less the arbor is finished at one cut. When this is done and 
ordinary care is used in keeping the jaws in contact satisfac- 
tory work will be turned out regularly, and it will also be a 
source of surprise to find how often the pivots of a French 




Fig 216. Self centering back rest for the watchmaker's lathe. 



clock you are repairing will be discovered to be badly out 
of center when tested by revolving the work with steady 
rest jaws closely fitting the arbor. It is frequently the case 
that the trains of such clocks are untrue in several ways, and 
the pivots will sometimes ofifset errors in the wheels and 
pinions and sometimes double them, according to how they 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 241 

are staked on. Many a fine looking clock has been cured 
of mysterious stoppages by the discovery that the pivots, 
which had been made in the manner shown in Fig. 9, were 
out of center. Wheels, pinions and pivots should all Be 
tested in such clock trains, as with the wheel on one end of 
the arbor and the pinion on the other their relation to each 
other and to a common center cannot be readily ascertained, 
except by revolving the arbor by its circumference in the 
manner indicated above. Drilling and pivoting clock arbors 
while they are held in the steady rest is readily done, but in 
the case of the French clocks spoken of it should not be done 
without first testing the truth of both wheel and pinion, as 
if errors offset each other, it is wiser not to correct them 
in such work as this. 



CHAPTER XV. 

IDLER PULLEYS, BELTS,, COUNTER SHAFTS AND FOOT WHEELS. 

Our study of the lathe and its operation would be incom- 
plete without paying* close attention to the methods of driv- 
ing not only the lathe, but also the various attachments. 
This subject is much more important than it seems, for 
much of the ease and facility of operation will be lost if the 
lathe, and especially the attachments, are driven improperly, 
whereas with suitable methods of driving everything will 
work easily and without undue fatigue and its consequent 
deterioration of the skill of the operator. 

Idler pulleys must be used in certain positions in which 
we wish to place the wheel cutters, and also when polishing, 
grinding and damascening, and milling or drilling with the 
pivot polisher. Idler pulleys were at first mounted on the 
carriage of the pivot polisher and all the older forms of at- 
tachments have them in this way, as it was supposed that the 
time gained by being able to set up pulleys and attachment 
at one operation more than counterbalanced the disadvan- 
tages. The chief drawback to this was the lack of range of 
the adjustment; any considerable movement changed the 
tension of the belt and therefore the movements of the 
spindle, interfering with its nicety of operation and making 
it harder to drive. It was also difficult to obtain belts having 
the necessary elasticity. For these reasons the use of idler 
pulleys on the various attachments has been generally dis- 
carded in favor of a separate idler pulley with adjustable 
standard, which may be slipped into a socket screwed to 
the bench near the headstock of the lathe, as shown in Fig. 

242 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 243 

198. This allows of a longer belt being used and permits 
greater freedom of movement of the tool, while, because of 
its greater length the belt may be looser and will then hug 
the small pulley better on its slack side and thus give greater 
driving power. A belt braided from silk sewing "twist," 
with the joint spliced so as to make a long and imperceptible 
joint, makes an ideal belt for the pivot polisher. It should 
be braided in four strands, which will give a round belt, 
using from two to four threads in each strand according 
to the thickness of belt desired. This makes a very strong 
and smooth running belt, if the splice is made long enough 
to be invisible. Use a needle in making the splice, fastening 
each thread separately. In braiding belts a small weight 
tied on each strand about eighteen inches from the point 
where the strands pass into the braid will give a facility in 
handling the strands, as they are then always under tension 
and are readily controlled by the fingers while braiding. 

The idler pulleys should be large, say from two to two 
and a half inches in diameter and with long hubs and thin 
webs, as such pulleys run slower and take less power to 
drive than smaller ones. Hard rubber with brass hubs 
makes the lightest pulleys, though they may be made of in- 
durated fiber or of metal. The long hub prevents the wheel 
from wabbling under side strain of the belt and thus pre- 
vents binding of the pulley on the stud, which would absorb 
power and slow the cutter or lap spindle. The stud on 
which the idle pulleys travel should be ground of uniform 
size throughout and be an easy fit to the hubs of the pulleys, 
so that they will move freely with the change of position 
of the cutter spindle. 

Heavier belts for wheel cutting, etc., are made of round 
or twisted raw hide, braided cotton, etc. The principal 
thing to look to in these belts is to see that they are suffi- 
ciently flexible and that the joint is such that the cutter 
spindle will not "jump" when the joint of the belt is passing 
over that pulley. Careful workmen sew these joints with 



344 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

silk or linen, much as a machinist laces a belt ; others use a 
thin, short hook because the belt may be readily unhooked 
and taken off when through using the attachment. If the 
spindle has a very small pulley an S-hook should be used 
as it gives greater freedom for the belt in passing the 
pulley. If one is using a speed pulley outside the pillar of 
the countershaft as in Fig. 217, the spliced endless belts will 
be found much the best on account of their greater smooth- 
ness of working. Endless belts should be put on the spindle 
of the attachment before the joint is spliced; forgetting this 
point has frequently caused trouble and annoyance. 

A good countershaft with speed pulley is absolutely neces- 
sary with every complete lathe outfit, in using milling tools, 
wheel cutters, etc. The advantages of a countershaft are 
many. By its use you carry the belt to the back of your 
bench, where it is out of the way, and you obviate the neces- 
sity of having holes in your bench on each side of the lathe, 
that small tools and articles are so apt to fall through, and 
last, but not least, you can change the speed of your lathe 
readily by shifting the belt from one step of the cones to 
the other, which, owing to the difference in the sizes of the 
pulleys, causes the lathe to run faster or slower with the 
same motion of the foot than it would if belted directly to 
the lathe. Experience shows that no watchmaker who ever 
used the countershaft has been willing to give up its use. 

In selecting countershafts, as in lathes, special attention 
should be paid to the quality of material and workmanship, 
rather than design, but one should be selected with a rather 
large and long shaft, so that the speed pulley may be readily 
changed back and forth to line up with the special attach- 
ment in use. This will require a shaft of at least eight 
inches in length or longer, depending upon the length of 
lathe bed. 

Fig. 217 shows a speed countershaft with rigid base and 
Fig. 218 one w T ith all its parts adjustable. The advantage 
claimed is that the countershaft may be moved about to take 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



2 45 



Up slack in all belts, but we think that this advantage is 
more theoretical than real. A twisted raw hide belt from the 
cone pulleys on the lathe to those of the shaft is readily ad- 
justed by twisting or untwisting to regulate the tension. 
The idler pulleys should take care of the tension of belts on 
attachments, etc. This leaves only the vertical adjustment 
to take care of the stretch of the belt to the foot wheel. 
Against this there is the tendency of all adjustable tools to 




Fig. 217, 



give way when they should be rigid. The countershaft in 
Fig. 218 runs on centers, while that in Fig. 217 runs in 
boxes. The pulleys in Fig. 218 have extension split sleeves 
which are compressed by thumb nuts, thus clamping them 
to the shaft in any desired position. 

As a matter of fact, w r e think, only the speed wheel on a 
countershaft should be adjustable, and the greater the 
rigidity of the rest of the apparatus the better. Once prop- 



246 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



erlv lined up, it should stay where it is put. The tension 
of a flat belt on a foot wheel is easily taken care of by proper 
lacing and that of a round belt by twisting, and we there- 
fore consider all this adjustability a detriment. The speed 
pulleys on countershafts vary from 4^ to 5^2 inches in 
diameter, the larger diameter being preferred by many on 
account of the increased speed given to the spindles of 
attachments by its use. Provision is generally made for 
moving it about three inches on the countershaft by watch- 
makers who do clock and other work, while those who do 




Fig. 218. 



watch work only need no adjustment in this respect, having 
a more than sufficient movement allowed by the stud on the 
idler pulleys for any movement of the cutter or polisher 
spindles on work that is so short. In use the countershaft, 
and especially the speed pulley, must be kept true, or chat- 
tering of the cutters, etc., on the work is sure to follow. 
Many an attachment has been condemned because the jump 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 247 

of the belts from an untrue shaft and pulleys made its 
proper working impossible. 

The importance of complete control over the driving 
power of the lathe, and hence its motion, was early recog- 
nized, and its development has proceeded slowly, but surely, 
along experimental lines. The variation of speed demanded 
is great and the fluctuations are sudden. Wheel cutting, 
jeweling, polishing, grinding pallet jewels, etc., demand 
high speed and considerable power. Staff making and 
ordinary turning require speed and frequent stoppages for 
measurements. Opening wheels and jewel holes, upright- 
ing, etc., require slow speed and frequently a backward 
motion ; this is also true in tapping screw holes. Perhaps 
the slowest speeds needed are when the operator is pivot- 
ing a hard staff, or drilling out a cannon pinion, for great 
care must be used to avoid breaking the drill, as if this were 
done, it might be difficult to extract the broken portion of 
the drill, which must, of course, be done before the work 
can be proceeded with. Therefore a perfect control of speed 
is a necessity. 

Perhaps the ideal power is a small motor with six speeds, 
four forward and two backward, all to be operated by a 
switch actuated by the foot ; but such motors are expensive 
and can only be operated in buildings provided with electric 
light ; the motor must be kept off the bench, to avoid danger 
of magnetism, and this makes a separate countershaft neces- 
sary, so that the foot wheel wall in all probability never be 
displaced with the majority of watchmakers. 

The necessity of perfect control has caused the retention 
of the hand wheel on the lathe in Europe to such an extent 
that it is very generally in use to-day. Fig. 219 shows a 
modern German lathe which is having extensive sale all 
over Europe, and it w r ell illustrates the methods of driving 
by hand. The reader will notice a crank on each side, to 
permit the use of either hand in driving. This allows but 
one hand at the lathe and we think the American watch- 



2±S 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



maker would find it a difficult proposition to do much work 
with such a machine. Still, good work is done on them— 
with a greater expenditure of time. We show it here be- 
cause we have made frequent reference to the European 
watchmaker having to learn the lathe over again when he 




Fig. 219. Modern German Lathe driven by Hand Wheel. 

comes to America, and it well illustrates the European habit 
of working to the right instead of to the left. 

The origin of the use of the foot wheel with the lathe 
is unknown. It came in from Europe with the Bottum and 
Swiss wax lathes (see Fig. 226.) It had a rocking treadle, 
connected with a small, light wheel, much like the sewing 
machine treadles of to-day, except that it was narrow and 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



2 49 



designed for one foot. The diameter and weight of the 
wheel were soon increased, to slow the foot motion and 
steady the power when using lathe attachments, but there 
was little further development until 1877 or 1878. Fig. 
220 shows one of these later wheels with a rockshaft 
through the base so as to get the connecting rod on the 
opposite side of the wheel, in order that the oil should not 
soil the clothing when using the wheel. 

In 1877, J. H. Purdy, then at 178 State street, Chicago, 
made a swing treadle wheel, but stopped short when he 




Fig. 220. 



discovered that the motion of the treadle was much faster 
when the crank was in the upper half of its revolution than 
in the lower. This wheel was sold to a Air. Johnson of 
Eau Claire, Wis., and is the original of the common swing 
treadle foot wheel of to-day. 

The next attempt was by C. Hopkins, of the Waltham 
Watch Tool Company, who made a swing treadle with an 
arm at right angles to the top of the treadle and the con- 
necting rod attached to the crank and the outer end of this 
arm. This partly remedied the unevenness of motion, but 
did not entirely correct it. This wheel is shown in Fig. 221. 
It was patented about 1879-80, one of the claims being the 



25° 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 




Fig. 221. Hopkins Foot Wheel. 

stirrup on the treadle, which prevented the foot from slip- 
ping off and gave better control when stopping or starting 
the wheel. It was also supported by a bracket bolted to the 




Fig. 222. Webster Foot Wheel. 



end of the bench, instead of standing on the floor. Watch- 
makers 1 benches at that time had no bottoms, and this 
arrangement allowed the foot wheel to be moved with the 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



2 5 l 



bench and gave increased convenience in sweeping and 
cleaning under the wheel. The bolts held the wheel 
securely, while those attached to the floor by screws were 
constantly getting loose. This wheel was considered a great 
improvement, and it is still selling. 

About 1888 Ambrose Webster re-invented the swing 
pendulum, which Mr. Purdy had discarded, and not being 




Fig. 223. Oliver Foot Wheel with Double Race and Ball Bearings. 

so exacting in regard to the evenness of motion he marketed 
the wheel, which immediately became a great favorite with 
the trade, Fig. 222, and has been liberally copied. 

W. W. Oliver, of Buffalo, N. Y., next obtained patents 
on a double roller and race, which could be adjusted for 
wear, made the wheel silent, during rapid motion, and also 
avoided jerking and back lash at the end of each stroke, 
Fig. 223. 

Hugo Schmidt, predecessor of the Chicago Watch Tool 
Co., was the first to apply ball bearings to the foot wheel, 



252 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

but made the mistake of selecting a 60-pound wheel for his 
experiment. He exhibited the new wheel to the trade, and it 
met with the objection that it. "ran too easily, so that it 
could not be stopped properly." He, therefore, discarded 
the bearings as worthless. Other manufacturers took up 
the idea, applied it to 30-pound and 40-pound wheels, and it 
proved a grand success, so that it is now generally made on 
all the better wheels. 




Fig. 224. Purdy "Wheel with Double Pendulum, 



About 1898, Frederick Purdy invented a swing treadle 
foot wheel, with bicycle spokes (to get all the weight in 
the rim) and two pendulums, carrying the crank race be- 
tween them. This kept the race perpendicular and gave the 
swing treadle an even motion, but the wheel was too ex- 
pensive on account of its bicycle spokes. It is now made 
with iron spokes and ball bearings and is selling well as a 
high-class wheel, Fig. 224. 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 253 

Various modifications have also been made in the pedals, 
but the accepted usage of the majority has finally declared 
for a ball bearing, swing pendulum, 40-pound wheel, with 
stirrup or step and drilled so that it may be bolted to the 
bottom of the bench. In doing this care should be taken to 




Fig. 225. Chicago Watch Tool Co., Wheel with single standard and 
Crank Pin in Wheel. 



use bolts long enough to use check nuts on them, so that the 
wheel may be removed readily, if necessary, without its 
getting loose when in action ; the practice of bruising the 
threads on the bolts after getting the nuts in place leads to 
awkward results when it is desired to remove the wheel, 
and for this reason it is strongly condemned. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WATCHMAKER'S BENCH. 

From the "watchmaker's board/' as shown in Fig. 219, 
or even the English bench of to-day, as shown in Fig. 226, 
to the modern American bench is a far cry. Pre- 
vious to 1870 the form of bench shown in Fig. 
226 had many examples in this country. Thence forward 
they became more elaborate; but up to 1881 there 
were no factory-made benches in the United States. It was 
customary for the watchmaker to go to a cabinetmaker of 
his acquaintance and order a bench which was then made 
by hand from drawings and measurements given by the 
purchaser and modified by the cabinetmaker according to 
his skill and the price to be paid. Sometimes these benches 
were very elaborately made from solid, fine woods, paneled 
all over and French polished ; as they had no bottoms, the 
ends and tops were heavy, and the drawers were generally 
paneled fronts. More frequently the cabinetmaker was 
called into a store where a watchmaker's bench was already 
located and told to "make one like that." He generally tried 
to improve on it and sometimes succeeded. 

In 1882, Hans Jessen and John Rosberg had established 
a wood-working factory under the name of Jessen & Ros- 
berg, in Chicago, and J. H. Purdy gave them an order for 
benches ; these had no bottoms, but were full paneled, with 
moulded drawer fronts, chalk box and aprons ; they were 
well made and sold readily, as it was a great convenience to 
be able to buy a bench when you bought your lathe, and the 
firm soon did a large business in them. The bottom was 
soon added, as the bench could then be made stronger and 

2 54 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



2 55 



lighter, and it was more convenient to have the foot wheel 
attached to the bench, Fig. 227. 

In 1885, E. Schwarz, then a watchmaker for J. H. Purdy, 
complained of the constant loss of his tools, and asked Mr. 




Fig. 226. English Lathe and Bench. 



Purdy if a roll-top bench could not be made, so that it could 
be readily locked up when leaving work. Mr. Jessen was 
called in and given the problem, which he soon solved 
satisfactorily, and thus originated the modern roll-top bench 
in use to-day. The first roll-top bench had the foot wheel 
enclosed, which still further strengthened the construction 
at that end, and thoroughly protected the clothing of the 
operator. It also rendered it easier to keep clean, as there 
was no necessity of brushing behind the foot wheel every 
day when sweeping and dusting the shop. It was after- 



2 c6 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

wards found necessary to increase the height of the curtain 
ends when closed, so as to fully clear the countershaft with 
speed wheel and also the lathe without moving either. Fig. 
228 shows one of these benches with the form of foot wheel 
in use at that time. 



Fig. 227. Flat Top Bench with Bottom. 

As the foundation is to the superstructure of a building, 
so is the bench to a complete watchmaking outfit. With 
a first-class lathe and foot wheel, and a poor, shaky, vibrat- 
ing bench, no first-class work can be performed. For this 
reason we believe that too much care cannot be bestowed on 
the choice of a bench. In selecting a bench, be sure to 
purchase from some large and reliable concern, where you 
are apt to get one which has been thoroughly seasoned. 
See that it is well put together and built from heavy sub- 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 257 

stantial lumber. The panels should be glued up from 
crossed veneers, so that they will stay straight and not 
shrink and swell with changes of weather. As to the kind 
of wood, we prefer a bench with the top made from birch 
or maple, as the grain of the wood is close and the color 
finished is light, so that it is easier to distinguish small 
screws and parts than if the top were made of dark wood. 

The arrangement of drawers, the boxing in of the foot 
wheel, the curtain top and other details must be left to the 
individual taste of the workman, but our choice would be 
a bench without a curtain top and one having many shallow 
drawers rather than one which has a few deep ones. Our 
reason for this choice is that we should not pile tools or 
attachments one upon another, as in so doing. they will more 
or less mar or damage each other, which must be guarded 
against, and all the fine tools and attachments must be 
handled with the same care and consideration that we would 
give to the finest watch. 

While the curtain topped bench, when new, has a tidy and 
neat appearance, it has its drawbacks as well as its advan- 
tages. As the bench grows old the curtain does not always 
work freely, and the curtain also acts as a receptacle for 
dirt and dust, so that in a short time you find that every 
time you close the top, dust is sifted down upon your work 
on the bench. When this happens the curtain should be 
taken out and thoroughly cleaned. This ought not to be nec- 
essary more than four times a year, unless working in an 
exceedingly dusty place. In many of these benches the 
countershaft and some of the lathe attachments have to be 
removed or folded down before closing the bench for the 
night, and this point should be carefully looked to before 
buying the bench, as makers will frequently try to reduce 
the size of the curtain top in order to reduce the cost and 
secure a lower selling price. With a flat topped bench the 
watchmaker acquires the habit of cleaning away his work 
each evening, but with the curtain top he is inclined to leave 



>58 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



everything just where he dropped it and therefore his bench 
top is liable to be the receptacle for all kinds of odds and 
ends. Your bench top should be kept free from all tools and 
attachments except those in actual use on the job you are 
working on, or excepting, perhaps, the modern staking tool 
and alcohol lamp and cup. 




Fig. 228. Roll Top Bench, closed. 

When a job of lathe work is completed, always clean off 
any turnings, filings or dirt, so it will not get into the 
watch; also put away all tools and attachments in their 
respective places, and then, should you need any of them 
again it will be much easier to get them from their proper 
place than to look over a lot of tools left on the bench. Have 
a place for everything and see that everything is in its place. 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



259 



Cultivate this habit at the start and it will be a source of 
considerable satisfaction to you to put your hands on a tool, 
attachment or article the minute you want it. 

The watchmaker who cultivates the habit of order and 
neatness will always be pointed out and selected in prefer- 
ence to one who is careless and untidy. Those who are 
lacking in this respect should begin its cultivation at once 
and apply it to every detail of both the tools and work. 

The drawers should be partitioned off lengthwise and 
crosswise into small compartments for the reception of the 
various small tools, sufficiently large that they will not lie 
one on top of another, keeping your tweezers in one com- 
partment, broaches in another, small files in another, screw 
drivers, drills, taps, dies and the various other tools each 
in their respective divisions. Chuck blocks should be made 
to fit the drawers of the bench, having a hole drilled clear 
through the block for each chuck. They may be of soft 
wood, and soaked in oil, then dried. They should fit 
loosely, so that they may be lifted out and the drawers 
cleaned readily. In this way any dirt falling into the holes 
for the chucks will drop through into the drawer bottom 
and not foul the chuck. 

The bench should be at least 40 inches high ; from 40 to 
44 inches long, and from 20 to 24 inches wide. A stool 
should be selected which is adjustable for height, and 
should be so adjusted that the workman does not bend over 
the bench. Always select a bench having a bottom securely 
fastened to it. Some makers, in order to cheapen their 
benches, make them without bottoms and they rest solely 
upon the back and side partitions. This is a faulty construc- 
tion, and such benches are liable to tremble and shake when 
the speed is considerable and the foot wheel heavy. Many 
watchmakers prefer casters on their benches so that they 
may be readily removed when sweeping. Our choice is a 
bencli without casters, carefully leveled, and then fastened 
to the floor with two or three strong screws. With such a 



260 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



bench you will avoid the nuisance of small objects rolling 
under it when dropped upon the floor, and as no dirt can 
get under it, there is no necessity of moving it when 
sweeping. 




Fig. 229. Section of Bench showing proper arangement of Belt. 

To prevent articles from falling off the bench, a strip ex- 
tending one and one-half inches above the top, should be 
placed around the ends and back, while along the front edge 
a strip with rounded edges should be fastened so as to 
project above the top three-sixteenths of an inch, leaving 
an opening at one end through which to brush the dirt. 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 26l 

In selecting a bench avoid those whose tops are varnished 
or finished with shellac, but rather select one with an oil 
finish top, as alcohol will ruin the appearance of varnish 
whenever it comes in contact with it. With an oil top bench 
you can clean up often with soap and water without impair- 
ing its finish in the slightest degree. 

In setting up a new bench and lathe before you bore any 
holes in the bench, place your foot wheel and countershaft 
in their relative positions which you expect them to occupy. 
If your foot wheel is twenty inches in diameter and your 
bench is twenty-four inches deep, bring the front edge of 
your foot wheel to within two inches of the front of your 
bench. Place your countershaft at the back of your bench 
so that the pulley will allow the belt to pass through the 
top one-half inch from the back of the bench. Xow draw 
a diagram, like Fig. 229, on a scale of one inch to the foot, 
measuring carefully the height and width of your bench, the 
diameter of your foot wheel, height of your countershaft 
from top of bench, and the diameter of pulley on the coun- 
tershaft. Transfer these measurements, carefully reduced, 
to your drawing. Draw lines representing the belt passing 
around the wheel and pulley. This will show you w T here 
to bore the holes in the top of the bench and also their angle. 

See if this line would cut through the base of the counter- 
shaft, should it have one. If it does, shift the position of 
your foot wheel toward the back, until the belt will clear 
the base of the countershaft. Let the front edge of the 
bench be the base from which all measurements are made. 
When you have carefully corrected your drawing, so that 
the belt clears the base of the countershaft, transfer your 
measurements in feet and inches to the top of your bench, 
locating the position of your belt holes and countershaft. 
Mark these carefully with your pencil. Also locate the exact 
position of your foot wheel, by marking the screw holes. 
Xever depend upon screws to hold your foot wheel in place, 
as they will almost invariably work loose, causing great 



262 THE AMERICAN LATHE. 

annoyance. Select bolts long enough to pass through the 
bottom of the bench and base of foot wheel, countersinking 
for tlie bolts, so the heads do not protrude on the bottom. 

Place the foot wheel in position, bolting it firmly to the 
bottom. Now make the holes for the belt, fastening the 
countershaft in such a position that the belt runs free. 



In completing this study of the lathe and its accessories 
we desire to say that no credit is claimed for originality of 
the contents of this volume. From the circumstances of the 
case it had of necessity to be merely a compilation, as lathe 
practice is a growth, one man contributing an idea here, 
another there, and a third, still another. Under such circum- 
stances all that could be done was to select the vital portions 
of that generally distributed knowledge and arrange them 
in such order that, when studied consecutively, they should 
contribute to a clear understanding of the limitations and 
capabilities of the American watchmaker's lathe. This 
knowledge and the ideas advanced have come from so many 
sources as to make proper credit to individuals impossible, 
and all that can be done, therefore, is to state that this 
volume is merely an attempt to record in serviceable form 
the general understanding of matters pertaining to the tools 
of the trade. For this reason it has been deemed better to 
confine the attention solely to the tools, rather than to give 
the individual methods of the writer in handling them, 
trusting that if the student understands the proper limita- 
tions of his instruments he will quickly develop the right 
methods of use; according to his surroundings and the work 
to be done. Study and practice will produce skill ; skill and 
speed make proficiency. 



INDEX. 



A 

Angle of Clearance 

. 145, 149, 168, 203, 205. 208 
Cutting Edge . 149, 176 

Annealing 159 

Approximation of Cycloid 

Curves 210 

Arbor Chuck 106 

Auxilliary Chucks 74 

B 

Back Rest . 237 

Balance Chuck 100, 101 

Ball Bearing Lathes . . 46. 47 

Ballou, Geo. F 21, 22 

44 Whitcomb & Co., . . 22 

Bearings Ball 46, 47 

44 Spindle 

34, 35, 37, 41, 42, 44, 47, 49 

Belts 243 

41 to Arrange, 260 

Bench Flat Top 256 

14 English 255 

41 Roll Top 258 

Bezel Chuck Snyder .... 85 

Boiling-Out Pan 97 

Brasses, Cement 90 

Buff Chuck 105 

c 

Caliper, Jewelling 137 

Carborundum . , 199 

Cementing 88, 97 

44 Brasses .... 90 

41 Watchmakers' . . 89 

Center Female 82 

Fitting of .... 83,129 

41 Male 82 

44 Pump 78 

44 Square Back .... 131 



Centering on Face Plate . 79, 80 
Center Holes of Milling 

Cutters 208 

Chicago Watch Tool Co., . . 253 

Chuck, Arbor 106 

44 Auxilliary 74 

44 Balance .... 100, 101 

Bezel 85 

Buff 105 

44 Cement . . 90, 91, 93 
44 Conoidal ...... 60 

44 Construction of . 51, 87 

Crown 73, 86 

Cylinder 101 

44 Early vs. Modern . . 67 
44 European vs. American 

38, 39. 40 

44 Flat Faced .... 58 
44 Four-Jawed .... 84 

44 Gem 86 

44 Jewelling . . . 74,102 

44 Johanson 87 

44 Jumbo 100 

44 Lines of Force in . . 52 
44 Manufacture of . . 60 
44 Origin of .... 18, 55 
Pivot Drill . . . , 132 
44 Proper Fitting of 38, 40 

Scholer 87 

44 Screw 90 

44 Screw Finishing . . 102 

44 Sizes of 64 

Snyder 85 

Springing of . . 53, 57 
Step ....... 72 

' 4 Stone Setting . . .105 

44 Taper 103 

44 Testing of 68 

44 Threads of .... 40 

44 Wheel 75 

44 Wood 104 

Construction of Chucks . 51, 87 



263 



264 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



C 

Construction of Jewelling Tail 

Stock .... 139 
of Lathe . . 25, 50 

Control of Power 247 

Counterbores . . . 171,172,214 

Countershafts 211 

Cutters, Clearance of . 115, 203 

44 Fly 205 

" Hardening .... 151 

Making 117 

Milling 208 

Rake of .... 151,203 
Slide Rest .... 151 
"" Tempering .... 161 
Shapes of Milling 213, 215 
Tool for Forming . 210 
Wheels, to make . . 208 
Cutting Pinions with Strad- 
dle Mills . . . .209 

Wheels 227 

Cylinder Chuck 101 

D 

Dead Center Lathe .... 13 

Diamantine 200 

Diamond Powder 198 

Dividing Head, to make . . 221 

Dog Face Plate 82 

Dracip Lathe 16, 17, 18 

Drill Chucks, Pivot .... 132 

Drilling Rest 131 

with Tail Stock 131, 133 

Drills, Making 117,161 

Pivot 168 

44 Sharpening . . . ,165 

Socket 130, 172 

Duplicate Spindles for Tail 

Stock 128 

E 

Egyptian Lathe 9 

English Lathe, Early ... 10 
Mandrel 27 

F 

Face Plate. Dog 82 

Jaws of .... 78 

44 L'niversal ... 78 

Fiddle Bow Lathe .... 12 



Fitting of Centers ... 83,129 
of Milling Cutters . 208 
of Shoe ...... Ill 

44 of Slide Rest ... 115 
of Tail Stock Spindle 128 
of Tapers . . . .83,129 

Fly Cutters 205 

44 to make ... 205 

Foot Wheels 218, 253 

Force, Lines of, in Chuck . 51 

G 

Gem Chuck 86 

Grinding . 107 

Faces of Pallets . 231 
with Pivot Polisher 195 

H 

Half Open Tail Stock ... 135 

Hand Rest 109 

Hardening of Steel .... 151 

Hardinge Lathe ..... 16 

Pivot Polisher . 191 

Head Stock, Section of 35,15, 16, 17 

44 Universal 77 

Hollow Spindle, Origin of . 18 

Hopkins, C 219 

Pivot Polisher . . 189 

Slide Rest .... 120 

Watch Tool Co . 22 

Howard, E 137 

I 

Idle Pulleys 242 

Index Plates 217 

Testing . . . 222 
Indices Table of 226 

J 

Jacot Lathe 14 

Jessen, Hans .254 

44 &Rosberg 254 

Jewelling Caliper 137 

Chucks ... 74 102 
Johanson's Crown Chucks . 87 



K 



Kidder & Adams , 



. 20, 21 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



265 



L 

Laps 102,108,193,199 

Lapping Pallets 234 

Latch for Index Plates . 219, 221 

Lathe Ball Bearing . . . 46, 47 

" Construction of . 25, 37, 50 

" Dead Center 13 

11 Dracip ... * 16. 17, 18 
M Early English .... 10 

" Egyptian 9 

" Engine .... 25, 26, 27 

" Fiddle Bow 12 

44 Geneva .... 29,32,33 

44 Hardinge 44 

44 Jacot 14 

44 Kidder & Adams . 20,21 
44 Modern German ... 248 
44 Names of Parts .... 24 
44 Original Moseley 19, 20, 22, 24 

44 Prehistoric 8 

44 Rivett . 44 

44 Section of . 31, 33, 44, 4(5, 47 

44 Sizes of 24, 43 

44 Spindles 34,35, 

36, 37, 40, 41, 42, 44, 46, 47, 49 

44 Stark ,21 

44 Universal 15 

44 Webster, Original . 20,21 

44 Wax 89 

44 Webster- Whitcomb 22, 31 

M 

Making Cutters and Drills . 147 

Mandrel, English 27 

Milling Cutters 208 

44 Fitting of . . 208 

Shapes of 213, 215 

Milling with Pivot Polisher 196 

Moseley, Chas. S. . . . 18, 55, 80 

44 Pivot Polisher . . 189 

Slide Rest .... 116 

o 

Oil Stop, to Turn 185 

Oliver, W. W ,251 

P 

Pallets, to grind 234 

Pan, Boiling Out 97 

Parts of Lathe, Names of . 24 

Pinion Cutters 209 

Pivot Drills 169 



Pivot Polisher 188 

44 Hardinge . . 194 

Hopkins . . 189 
Moseley . . .189 
Rivett ... 191 
Webster-Whit- 
comb . . . 193 
44 Grinding with 196 

Limitations of 197 
Milling with 196 
Polishing Pivots .... 186, 192 

Power, Control of 247 

Prehistoric Lathe 8 

Pulleys, Idle ....... 242 

Purdy, Frederick 252 

44 J. H 249, 254 

Q 

Quill 125 

R 

Reamers 173 

Rest, Drilling 131 

44 Hand 109 

44 Slide . .• 132 

44 T 109 

Rivett Lathe 44 

44 Pivot Polisher ... 191 
Slide Rest . . . 122,124 

Rosberg, John 254 

Rounding-up Tool 229 

• 4 to Use . 231, 235 

s 

Section of Engine Lathe . . 26 
44 44 Watchmakers' 

Lathe . . . . 31, 33 
44 44 Headstocks . . „ 

.... 24, 45, 46, 47 
44 Slide Rest . . . 

. . 118,120,122,123 

Schmidt, Hugo 251 

Scholer Chuck 87 

Screw Finishing Chuck . . 102 

44 Tailstock 135 

Sizes of Chucks 64, 76 

Sharpening Drills 168 

Sherwood 137 

Shoe, Fitting of 107 

Slide Rest 132 

44 Fitting of .... 115 

44 Hopkins . . 120.121 

44 Moseley .... 116 



266 



THE AMERICAN LATHE. 



s 

Sliee Rest, Rivett . . . 122, 124 
44 Sections of . . . 

. . . 118,120,122,123 
14 Springing of . . 113 
44 Webster - Whit- 
comb 117 

Socket, Drill 130, 172 

Softening Steel 159 

Spindle Bearings .... 34 

. 35, 37, 41, 42, 44, 46, 47, 49 
44 Hollow, Origin of . 18 

Push 127 

Spindles, Duplicate .... 129 

Springing of Slide Rest ... 113 

44 Spindles . 38, 40, 41 

Square Back Center .... 131 

Stark, John 21 

Steady Rest 237 

Steel, Hardening of .... 154 

Step Chucks 72,74,76 

Stepping Device 72 

Stone-Setting Chuck .... 105 

Straddle Milling 209 

Swing Tailstock 137 

44 " Clement . 143 

44 " Hopkins . . 142 

" •• Moseley. . 141 



T 



Table of Indices ...... 

Tail Stocks 

44 44 Push Spindle . 

Tail Stock as stop or Gauge 
Half Open .... 

44 " Screw 

44 " Swing 

" " Clement . 

44 ** " Hopkins . . 

44 44 " Moseley . 

Use of. . . 
44 4 * Traverse Spindle 

Taper Chuck 

Tapers, see Centers .... 

44 Fitting of 

Tempering Cutters 161 

Steel 161 

Testing Chucks 68 

Index Plates . . . 223 
Threads of Chucks ... 39, 40 



226 
126 
127 
133 
135 
134 
137 
143 
142 
141 
144 
136 
103 



129 



Tool for Forming Cutters . 210 

44 Jacot 14 

Tools Angle of Cutting Edge 

176 

Traverse Spindle Tail Stock . 136 

T Rest 109 

Triangle of Forces Applied 

to Lathe 28 

Turning Balance Staffs . . 180 
" Thin Work .... 237 

" Oil Stops 185 

With Graver and 
Slide Rest ... 175 
Turns 13 

U 

Universal Lathe 15 

n Face Plate ... 78 
Head 77 

V 

Vienna Lime 200 

w 

Watchmakers' Cement ... 89 
Lathe Wax . 89 
Webster, Ambrose . . 20,80,251 
41 Whitcomb Pivot Pol- 
isher 193 

Slide Rest . . . 117, 119 

Wheel Chucks 75 

44 Cutter, Method of At- 
taching 227 

Cutting 216 

44 * 4 Attachment, 

Early . . 217 
44 " Attachment, 

Hopkins . 218 
44 4< Attachment, 

Moseley . 218 
44 44 Attachment, 

Rivett . . 222 
Attachment, 
Webster- 
Whitcomb. 220 
44 Engine . . 216 

Wheels, Foot 248,253 

to Cut 227 

Whitcomb, John E 21 

Wood, Chuck 104 



Perfection in Motor Lathes! 

SEND FOE LIST OF RELIABLE UNSOLICITED TESTIMONIALS. 

The W. Green & Co. No. 4 "IMPROVED COMBINATION' ' Noise= 
less, Polishing, Buffing, Grinding, Drilling and Turning Electric 
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For Watchmakers, Jewelers, Opticians, Silversmiths, Dentists, 
Machinists, Electricians and for all trades and purposes. . . . 



Showing Direct Current Motor with 
Buffing and Polishing Attachment. 



Showing Direct Current Motor 
with Drilling Attachment. 





"Nothing better can he made; absolutely 
dust-proof, air and water tight, and fully 
warranted." Instantly adjusted to electric 
light socket. 



With reasonable care these motors will 
last, in constant use for 20 years. Speed, 1200 
to 3000 revolutions per minute, as desired. 

All chucks adjustable and interchangeable. 



MONEY REFUNDED IF FOUND UNSATISFACTORY. 



Showing Alternating Motor with 
Grinding Attachment, 



Showing Direct Current Motor with 
Pulley Attachment. 





NET PRICE LIST OF LATEST MODEL. 

Voltage. Horse-Power. 

52 to 110 1-5, including 5 new-style solid brass adjustable chucks, 
115 to 220 1-5, " 5 ■ 

52 to 110 1-4, high case and heavy frames, with extra long adjustable 

spindles and grinding attachments, 
115 to 220 1-4, same description, 

52 to 110 1-3, »■ 
115 to 220 1-3, M 

52 to 110 1-2, M 
115 to 220 1-2, " 



"•"--:--• - __ 


^ 


Price of 


Price of 


L. DIRECT 


ALTERNATING 


Current. 


Current. 


chucks, $30.50 


$42.50 


35.00 


47.00 


adjustable 




50.00 


82.50 


55.50 


95.00 


60.00 


97.00 


65.50 


110.00 


75.00 


120.00 


80.50 


130.00 



WPDCCK 9 PR C Maiden Lane, 
■ UnLCn ft bU. t New York, U.S. A. 

Importers, Exporters, Manufacturers. 

"WE HANDLE EVERYTHING KNOWN TO THE TBADE AND SOLICIT C0BBESP0NDENCE." 



Watch Materials, Tools, 
Jewelers', Engravers' 
and Opticians' Supplies. 



RIVETT LATHES 




COMPLETE! ACCURATE! ELEQANT! 

The only lathe on the market which does not require extra 
belting for the use of the various attachments. 

Made in two Styles; With Steel Bed; With Cast Iron Bed. 

We issue a large and finely illustrated catalogue showing at length 
the various fine points of the Rivett Watchmakers Lathes and their 
attachments. You should have this catalogue if you desire to keep 
posted on the advances in mechanical construction of Watchmaker's 
Tools. We will mail it free on application for Catalogue A. X,. 



FANEUIL WATCH TOOL CO., 



Brighton, 



BOSTON, MASS., U. S. A. 



When writing to advertisers mention the Watchmakers' Lathe. 



Rivett Staking Tools 




We were the first to make a 100 punch staking tool, others have 
followed us but have not succeeded in getting out any of the new and 
useful styles of punches which characterize our tool. 

Our frame is so made that it will receive a blow on the stake with 
absolutely NO VIBRATION. Our die is larger and has more holes than 
any other on the market. Our binder is patented and Will Not Allow the 
Die to Move, as is the case with many other blocks, when tested under 
a series of blows. Our catalogue A. L. tells more about staking tools 
and their use than any other publication in existence. Better send for it. 



FANEUIL WATCH TOOL CO., 

Brighton. - BOSTON, MASS., U. S. A. 

When writing to advertisers mention the Watchmakers' Lathe. 



Adjustable 3Uam*-~300fl 




Cbe turner Double Jet Alcohol Blowpipe no. 10 

Generates sufficient heat to melt Platinum and Gold alloy. 
The flame is instantly adjusted to any size and shape de- 
sired, from a long brush flame that will cover an ingot of 
gold to the needle pointed flame required for soldering 
spectacle frames. No mouth blowpipe or bellows are re- 
quired. The pressure is pumped into the reservoir and 
will not require repumping for an indefinite time. The 
blowpipe is simple, requires no attention and can be 
turned down like a lamp when desired, ready for imme- 
diate use. The burner is swiveled, permitting the flame 
to be directed up or down, or any position required. 




No, 10 Double Jet Alcohol Blowpipe, $4.50 each. Sent prepaid on receipt of price. 

Burns wood alcohol. Capacity y x pint; one filling lasts 3 hours at 

full blast. Shipping: weight 2 lbs. 



Write for (Etrotlar 

31j? (Hnxmx Intss Harks 

52 ifflirfjigan gtori, (Htprago, l.^.A * 




When writing to advertisers mention the Watchmakers' Lathe. 



Many first-class workmen throughout the country 
recommend a young man to the horological school for his 
training of head and hand when he has decided to take up 
watch work and its kindred trades. This is proven by the 
fact that seventy-five per cent of our students have been 
recommended by the leading jewelers and watchmakers of 
their community, and twenty-five per cent are the sons of 
parties who are in the jewelry business, and in many cases 
represent the largest establishments in their section. They 
realize that they will get many times more attention in a 
thoroughly equipped, well-established watch school, where 
there is a full corps of competent instructors, than they can 
possibly receive as apprentices in a store where the watch- 
maker is too busy to take time for the proper instruction, 
or the jeweler is rushed without being plied with questions 
from a novice, and the engraver has something else to do 
when not at work on his own line, waiting on customers or 
other work about the store which demands his attention. 

At Bradley the work has been systematized so that 
a student can get the greatest possible amount of work 
in the shortest time, and the grade of his work is many 
points ahead of the average apprentice who has put in five 
or six times as much work and time in the store. 

Bradley Horological Department is no experiment — 
it is the oldest school in the country, has the largest build- 
ing in the world that is used exclusively for the purpose of 
instruction in watch work, jewelry and engraving, is the 
best equipped as regards tools and instructors, with finan- 
cial backing which guarantees everything as represented. 
It is the only Endowed Watchmakers' School in the Uuited 
States. 

You can get watch work, jewelry work, engraving 
and optics. 

Send for catalogue to horological department. 



BRADLEY POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, 

PEORIA, = ILLS. 

When Writing to advertisers mention the Watchmakers' Lathe. 



Cbe jMost popular Rest 

We claim that 
our slide rest is 
the most popular 
form of watch- 
makers' slide 
rest in America. 
Ever hear of any 
other form being 
imitated as ours 
has been ! Well, 
there was a rea- 
son why they 
imitated ours. 
These slide rests 
are being used 
on every make 
of lathe; pretly good evidence of its worth, ain't it? Accur- 
ate enough to please the most exacting. 




Cbe Snyder Cbuck 



This is another 
of our specialties. 
One chuck that 
will take a greater 
range of flat work 
than twenty ordi- 
nary step chucks. 
We have a full and 
complete assort- 
ment of wire 
chucks in sizes and 
half sizes and many 
special forms. Bet- 
ter send for our 
special catalogue of 
the Webster- Whit- 
comb Lathe and Attachments. 




American match Cool Co., 

manufacturers of tools for match factories and Repairers. 

WALTHAM, MASS., - U. S. A. 

When writing to advertisers mention the Watchmakers' Lathe. 



Che Leading Styles 
of foot <BKbeel8... 




No. 3 Improved. 



No. 3 Ball Bearing. 



Original and only manufactured by us. Sold by 
the Tool Jobbers throughout the World. 

Our Catalogue describes our full line of Watch- 
makers' and Jewelers' Machinery and Tools. Sent 
Free on application. 



Cbe <& CCl, Oliver JMamifactunng Co* 

1488 JNiagara Street 

Buffalo, Jtf. % - - a 8. 3. 



When writing tc/advertisers mention the Watchmakers' Lathe, 



the Hew fiigb Speed Polishing Eatbe 



3000 Resolutions Per minute 



If' tflfi 1 — Biic 



It is new. 

It is simple. 

It is original. 

It is a hustler. 

It is entirely self 
contained. 

It will give you 
better satisfac- 
tion than any 
other. 

It will do the 
work in half 
the time requir- 
ed by others. 

It will grind, pol- 
ish, buff, drill 
and saw. 



Don't abuse your 
expensive Jewelers' 
Eathe with work 
that should be done 
on this machine. 



Che price is wiib- 
in the reach of all. 



SOLD BY ALL JOBBERS. 



Manufactured Exclusively by 



Chicago (Hatch Cool Co., 



CHICAGO, ILL., 



U. S. A. 



Largest Manufacturers of Foot Wheels, Polishing Lathes, Watch Signs, and 
Watch Racks in the United States. 

When writing to advertisers mention the Watchmakers' Lathe. 



MOSELEY 




HAS been spending his time for many years in 
making Moseley Lathes as good as lathes 
can be made. 

Nothing is overlooked in their manufacture and 
no expense is spared to make everything about 
them Right. 

It's no wonder that Moseley Lathes are good 
Lathes. 

They are the result of years of painstaking, 
systematic and skilled endeavor to satisfy the exact- 
ing requirements of the most critical and experi- 
enced workmen. 

Moseley Chucks are of Best Quality and are 
made in all sizes, covering every need of the expert 
watchmaker and repairer, and at the present low 
prices a very complete assortment of Chucks may 
be had at very moderate expense. 

Good Chucks and Plenty of them is the secret 
of rapid, accurate and therefore profitable work. 

Write your jobber for price list, or to the manu- 
facturer. 



Moseley Lathe Co., 

ELGIN, ILLINOIS, CI. S. A. 



When writing ; to advertisers mention the Watchmakers' Lathe. 



^DUPLEX 

FOOT -WHEEL 




XS the highest development in devices for converting the oscil- 
lation of the foot into the rotation of a lathe wheel. By this 
construction the inequality of backward and forward motion 
of the pendulum has been entirely overcome, thus giving a 
uniform oscillation, relieving the user of the disturbing condi- 
tion of irregular movements while engaged in delicate turning. 
No other wheel posseses this cardinal mechanical virtue. The wheel 
is practically without dead centers, always ready to start in the 
right direction from any point. 

Weight of Wheel alone, 40 lbs. Weight of Wheel and Frame 65 lbs. 
No. 3751 A, with ball bearings .... $10.00 No. 3751 B, without ball bearings . . $ 8.00 

J. H. PURDY & CO., 

126 to 130 STATE STREET, CHICAGO. 



When writing to advertisers mention the Watchmakers' Lathe. 



S3 1 



bo' 




<U 

c/3 

c 
a, 

8*1 



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2 *>" 

?-. u a 
fa 15"* =* 

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CO 



Perfect Construction Ms. 

T>xrd Spindles Rutiniiig in hardened Steel Bushings. 

FULL NICKEL PLATE. 

BCWiirC Of In com P arin S Prices with other lathes, learn 
r the difference in size, quality and details of 

l,fTHtatl0118 construction. 




Lathe, including Taper and Screw Chuck, 6 Cement Chucks and Belting. 
Eztra Wire and Wheel Chucks, each 



. $29.00 
.75 

A CHUCK MAY LOOK ALL RIGHT, YET BE ALL WRONG. 

Our Chucks are made of the very best steel and absolute con- 
centricity of cone, thread and hole is obtained by the most im- 
proved methods based upon years of experience. We use no 
Dies for the threads, but CUT THEM ON A LATHE; nor do 
we file and polish the cone, body or hole, but GRIND them to a 
standard on special grinding machinery and guarantee perfec- 
tion in every part. WE CAUTION YOU AGAINST THE IMPERFEC- 
TIONS OF THE IMITATION. 

^T^This guarantee is 
backed by our experi- 
ence of 32 years in 
building Lathes and 
the perfect methods 
used in their construc- 
tion. 



Tor Sale by all Job- 
bers in tbe United 
States ana Canada. 



This certifies that the Lathe marked 
AMERICAN WATCH TOOL CO. 

No. 12824 
was made from the best materials . on the 
most afifiroved f>lan, and is a reliable lathe. 
For any defect in material or workmanship 
we hold ourselves responsible. 

But Notify ITS Promptly of Any Faults. No Claims Al- 
lowed After 60 Days. 

American Watoh Tool Co., 
Waltham, Jan, 7, 1094. 

Inspected by J. Graham. 



When writing to advertisers mention the Watchmakers* Lathe. 



jM 



Norris, Alister 6c Co., 

Wholesale Jewelers, 

Importers and Jobbers in Watchmakers' Tools, Materials and Jew- 
elers' Supplies. 



"OUR SPECIAL 



ft 



Lathe Outfit - L704 

Less 6 Per Cent. $41i50 Less 6 ^r Cent. 




Lathe Outfit Consists of: — 

1. Improved Boley Lathe, 10 chuck combination, consist 
ing of 6 wire chucks, 2 wheel chucks, six ^4-inch cement 
brasses, chuck block with glass cover and 9 feet round belt. 

2. Work Bench, Oak Finished, Flat Top, with 4 Drawers, 
Cupboard and Apron Slide. 

3. Bench Stool, Oak Finish. 

4. Foot Wheel, Heel and Toe Treadle. 

5. Countershaft with Speed Wheel, Nickel Plated. 

6. Watch Rack for 50 Watches with Bar and Eagle Orna- 
ments, Handsomely Nickel Plated. 

7. "Our Perfection" Parallel Calipers, Finely Damas- 
keened. 

8. Poising Tool, Steel Jaws. 

9. Simplicity Alcohol Lamp. 

10. Set of 5 Screw Drivers, Colored Celluloid Heads. 
The above outfit can also be furnished with any other 

make Lathe desired. Correspondence Solicited. 

Our Tool and Material Catalogue will interest you; 
Write for Copy. 

134-136 WABASH AVENGE, 
Jewelers Building - CHICAGO. 



When writing to advertisers mention the Watchmakers' Lathe. 



3X4 HOPKINS LATHE 




WELL BUILT, WELL FINISHED, 
ACCURACY GUARANTEED. 



Length of Bed 11 inches; Bed to Center, 2.09 inches; Swing 4.18 
inches. This lathe has HARD SPINDLES and HARD RUNNING 
BEARINGS, and we guarantee its perfection in all details. 

The chucks are made of the best steel, with the greatest care to en- 
sure accuracy in regard to Hole, Body, Thread and Cone. All the 
threads of chucks are cut on a lathe, not in a die. This method assures 
perfection and" is the only one which permits a perfectly centered 
chuck. The holes in chucks are ground after being hardened and all 
parts of the chuck are ground on machinery esspecially designed for 
the purpose. The 3x1 Hopkins lathe has been on the market for OVER 
30 YEARS, and combines the greatest accuracy, durability and 
beauty of lines. 

We also manufacture the well known Waltham Screw Drivers. The 
Latham Counterbores, as used by watch factories and repairers— Jewel 
bezel openers and burnishers-case tools and other small tools for 
watchmakers. 

SEND FOR CATALOGUE. 



Waltham Watch Tool Company, 

SPRINGFIELD, MASS., U. S. A. 

When writing to advertisers mention the Watchmakers' Lathe. 



Beautiful and Useful Cools 



♦♦♦♦ 




* CHICAGO-* ' 



Hardinge Screw Cutting Attachment, Fitted to any Lathe. 





Flat Face Wire Chuck 
Fitted to any Lathe. 



HOUGHTO 

Fa ce P lat 

MFGD. BY 

Hardinge B 



Round Face Wire Chuck 
Fitted to any Lathe. 




Fitted to any Lathe. 



Fitted to any Lathe. 



Manufactured by 



HARDINQE BROS., 



1034=36 Lincoln Avenue, 



CHICAGO, ILL. 



We make some things that you can't get anywhere else. 

WRITE FOR CATALOGUE. 

When writing to advertisers mention the Watchmakers' Lathe. 




When writing to advertisers mention the Watchmakers' loathe. 



>\r T0p to ejnglBiiii MtAt\ do. 




6 .'i 



(ftljarlra heater 

Ppatent; Jttanagrr 



jvianufacturers of 



Nawltt?* 



~UL 



atrij?0 



Send for our printed 
matter showing our 
Latest Novelties, 
which are continu- 
ally changing. 

& 

131-13? 

Habaatj Ave., 

dtjtragn, 3111., 

1. ». A. 





When writing to advertisers mention the Watchmakers' Lathe. 



SOME PEOPLE DOINT STOP TO THINK 

and again it seems that much of the Jewelry Trade from 
the far East to the Rockies have come to the conclusion that 

CALVIN CLAUER COHPANY, 




!5 I=I 53 Wabash Avenue, 

is Headquarters for every thing in the shape of Jewelry, 
Optical Goods, Manufacturing Machinery, Small Lathes, 
Tools, Findings, Benches, Signs, Etc. and all Watch 
Material. 

This firm can start any one into business, with small 
or large capital, being able to supply the entire line from the 
Watch Sign to the Back Door. 

WRITE THEM BEFORE YOU BUY ELSEWHERE. 



THE AMERICAN JEWELER 

CHICAGO, ILL., U. S. A. 



Has Readers in Every Country Where the English Language 
is Understood. 

The reason is that it is a thoroughly practical Technical Journal. 
devoting its entire contents to original" practical matter which is of 
value to the Watchmaker, Jeweler, Optician, Electro-Plater and En- 
graver. Xot a dull or impractical article in it from one year's end to 
the other. 

Send us One Dollar and we will mail you the Jeweler for a year and 
a cloth copy of "The Watchmakers' Hand Book," revised American 
edition. It contains 273 illustrations, 506 pages, thoroughly indexed. 
It is brought down to date with special reference to the wants of Am- 
erican Watchmakers. This book will not be sold and can only be had 
by subscribing to The American Jeweler. Fine cloth binding. Gold 
side and back stamps. 

This Journal is up=to=date and progressive and is worth 
many times the subscription price to all progressive Watch= 
makers and Jewelers. 



HAZLITT & WALKER, Publishers 

373 Dearborn Street = = CHICAGO, ILL. 

When writing to advertisers mention the Watchmakers' Lathe. 



IF YOU WORK AT THE BENCH 

We can supply you with Benches and everything pertaining to the Bench 
as we are undoubtedly headquarters for everything in Watch Mater- 
fal* Tools and Jewelers Supplies, and in addition to our immense 
atorlment of small tools we carry a large and varied supply of^he 
best in Standard American and Imported Lathes at PRICES BELOW 
THE AVERAGE. 




No 172. Solid Oak Bench. $22.00 less 6 per cent for cash. 

Height to table 40 inches, total height 49 inches, width 26 inches, length 44 inches. 
We make a specialty of Watch Material orders and rush them out 
without o^ay. having a large staff of experienced salesmen devoted 
SSS to this class of our business. No orders too large for our 
ranacitv and none too small for our best attention. 

l^k^T^^^^^i^^^ EST SB33 

and jewelry wtaToguL are yours for the asking. 

OTTO TOUNQ £22 CO., 

Importers and Jobbers in Diamonds, Watches, Clocks, '.Jewelry, Tools, 

Materials and Optical Goods. 
149, 15' »"<» '53 State Street, - CHICAGO, ILL. 

When writing to advertisers mention the Watchmakers' Lathe. 



PRACTICAL BOOKS 

FOR 

Watchmakers and Jewelers, Electroplaters, 
Engravers, Opticians, Etc. 

PUBLISHED BY 

HAZLITT 6c WALKER, 

373 Dearborn Street - Chicago 



Abbott's American Watchmaker and Jeweler. By Henry G. 

Abbott. An Encyclopedia for the Horologist, Jeweler, Gold and Silversmith. 
Containing Hundreds of Private Receipts and formulas, Compiled from the 
Best and Most Reliable Sources. Complete Directions for Using all the Latest 
Tools, Attachments and Devices for Watchmakers and Jewelers. 
^uai^HZs^^a Among other things contained in this volume may be 
mentioned a thorough explanation of adjustments, 
both to positions and isochronism; directions for mak- 
ing all the alloys used by a watchmaker, jeweler and 
metalworker; a review of all the escapements, their 
action, construction and proportion, together with 
diagrams of each escapement; an exhaustive treatise on 
balances, their expansion and contraction, auxiliaries, 
sizes and weights and direction for poising; the balance 
staff, and full and complete directions for making and 
replacing new staffs, together with the use of graver in turning and the 
manipulation of measuring instruments; directions for making twenty differ- 
ent cement6 of great value to the watchmaker and jeweler, including lathe 
wax; directions for cleansing, pickling and poliehiDg all kinds of metals; 
magnetism and the use of various demagnetizes; electro- plating, bronzing 
and staining all metals; gauges of all kinds, and directions for using; solder- 
ing and directions for making all kinds of hard and soft solder and fluxes; 
steel, its treatment in annealing, hardening, tempering, etc.; watch cleaning, 
repairing, etc.; a treatise on wheels and pinions; directions for ueing all mod- 
ern tools and appliances; and hundreds of miscellaneous receipts, formulas 
and hints on all kinds of work, of great value to every workman. This edition 
contains forty-four pages more than former editions, and each page contains 
one-third more matter than the pages of former editions. An alphabetical 
list of all books on horology published in the English or French language, 
prior to 1850; portraits and sketches of all the celebrated watchmakers of 
the world from 1600 to 1893. 378 pages. Illustrated with 317 engravings. 
Fine muslin, $1.50. Leatherette covers 1 25 

The Watchmakers' and Jewelers' Practical Hand Book, a guide 

to the student and a workshop companion for the practical watchmaker. 
Hundreds of valuable suggestions from private formulas and the best authori- 
ties, together with hints on making certain repairs. An invaluable book for 
the workman. The most valuable book for the money ever offered to the 
trade. Fifth edition, revised and enlarged. Edited and compiled by Henry 
G.Abbott. Illustrated with 154 zinc etchings. 118 pages. Paper covers 35 
Flexible Cloth 50 



Antique Watches and How to Establish Their Age. By Henry 

G. Abbott. This book reviews all the great collections of antique watches; 
gives valuable rules for determining the age of a watch; a chronological 
list of the important inventions in horology from 1500 to 1810 and illus- 
trates the various types of pillars, hands, balance cocks, bridges, ornaments 
and pendants used on antique watches. It is illustrated with 170 half-tone 
illustrations of watches and clocks made by the masters of horology and 
portraits and brief biographical sketches of the masters of horology. It also 
contains a directory of over 6,000 names of English, French, Dutch, German, 
Swiss and American watch and clock makers, who were in business prior to 
1850. It is the most complete list of its kind today and the only work that 
gives a complete list of early American makers. It gives the name of the 
maker, his town, date in which he was in business and where possible data in 
regard to him and an illustration of his work. The book is 5H x 8 inches and 
about 1H ins. thick. Bound in silk cloth with gold side stamp. 200 pages.. 2 00 

Friction, Lubrication and the Lubricants in Horology. By W. T. 

Lewis. Illustrated with half-tones and drawings by the author. A work not 
only for horologists but for mechanics in general who are interested in the 
laws governing friction and lubrication. 96 pages. Paper covers, 75 cents. 
In art muslin, with aluminum side stamp 1 00 

Modern Electro Plating. By J. H. Van Home. The only work 
on the market that gives the proper attention to the modern tools, materials 
and methods used in preparing work for plating. It takes up matters from 
the beginning, and tells how to manipulate articles from the rough casting, 
forging or stamping, clear through all the processes of polishing, plating, 
etc., down to the final coat of lacquer. It explains how to make the plating 
solutions, how to keep them in order, and how to manipulate the work and 
the current so as to get the best results. It treats copper, brass, silver, 
alloys and gold solutions in a comprehensive way that enables the student or 
workman to understand the reasons for the various operations and make 
him in a large degree independent of rigid and exact formulae, thus allowing 
him to make or modify the various solutions to exactly suit the nature of his 
work. 189 pages, with 27 illustrations, handsomely bound in cloth, $1.00. 
Paper cover 75 

The Evolution of Automatic Machinery as Applied to the Manu- 
facture Of Watches. By E. A. Marsh. This book is illustrated 
with seventy-two fine half-tones, made direct from photographs taken especi- 
ally for this work. The author has been associated with the Waltham Factory 
for many years, has designed many of the machines himself, and is thoroughly 
conversant with their action and construction. He is now the assistant 
superintendent in the company's great factory. The book is a complete 
history of automatic machinery as used by this company, starting with the 
crude machinery of 1850 and taking it step by step up to the present time. - 
The automatic machinery of this factory is noted throughout the world 
for its superior design and wonderful movements. Bound in silk cloth, with 
beveled boards, gilt top and gold side and back stamp. 140 pages. Price 2 00 

The Acme Monogram Album. Contains 350 two- letter mono- 
grams of the most artistic character. Every letter in combination with every 
other letter. Unlike the cheap works now on the market, it does not consist 
of skeletons, which the engraver has to elaborate and fill in. They are com- 
plete monograms, ready to trace and transfer to the article, and are fitted for 
the finest goods. Mailed to any address on receipt of 10 



Wheels and Pinions and How to Determine their Exact Size. With 

ten tables and one plate. By F. Shouffelberger. Translated and edited, with 
additions, by Theo. Gribi. By means of this book you can instantly deter- 
mine the exact size of any missing wheel or pinion in a clock, watch, chro- 
nometer or other mechanism. No figuring of any kind is required. The 
exact figures are given in inches or fractions of an inch, in centimeters, 
millimeters or fractions, or in Douzieme measurement. No machinist, 
watch, clock or chronometer maker or repairer can afford to be without 
it. Paper cover, 50c. Full cloth binding 75 

An Analysis of the Lever Escapement. By H. R. Playtner. The 

most thorough book on the subject ever produced. Written in a plain and 
comprehensive manner and thoroughly illustrated. Cloth binding, gold 
side stamp. 88 pages, -- 50 

Compensating Pendulums and How to Make Them. A Practical 

Treatise on the Construction of mechanically perfect Pendulums, for the use 
of watchmakers. By J. L. Finn and S. Riefler. Illustrated. Paper covers. 
44 pages 35 

Repairing Repeating Watches. By C. T. Etchells. A practical 

treatise on the subject and the only one in print. Fully illustrated. Paper 
covers. 32 pages 35 

Prize Essay on the Balance Staff and Cylinder. By P. W. Eigner. 

This Essay took the first prize offered by the American Horological Society. 
Illustrated by numerous engravings. Paper covers. 24 pages 25 

Staff Making and Pivoting. . Practical directions for making new 
staffs from raw material. By Eugene E. Hall. Chapter I. The Raw Mate- 
rial; the Gravers; the Roughing out; the Hardening and Tempering. Chapter 
II. Kinds of Pivots; their Shape; Capillarity; the Requirements of a good 
Pivot. Chapter III. The Proper Measurements and How Obtained. Chaptei 
IV. The Gauging of Holes; the Sideshake; the Position of the Graver. Chap- 
ter V. The Grinding and Polishing; the Reversal of the Work; the Wax Chuck. 
Chapter VI. Another Wax Chuck; the Centering of the Work. Chapter VII. 
The Finishing of the Staff; Pivoting; Making Pivot Drills: Hardening 
Drills; the Drilling and Fitting of New Pivots. Illustrated with 24 engrav- 
ings. 48 pages. Paper Covers 25 

The Art of Hard Soldering. By Henry G. Abbott. 69 pages; 

neat cloth binding. Fully illustrated. Contents* Lamps and Blowpipes; 
Character and Use of the Flame; Soldering Appliances. The Uses and Nature 
of Fluxes ; Soldering and Alloys ; The Practical Work. Cloth 50 

Prize Essay on Watch Gleaning and Repairing. By F. C. Ries. 

This work took the first prize (offered by The American Jeweler) , in com- 
petition with thirty-six other writers. Contents: Examination of the Move- 
ment; Taking Down; Fitting the Dial; Fitting Center Pivot and Bridge; Bush- 
ing; Endshake; Worn Center Pinions; Truing the Barrel; Repairing the Ratch- 
et; Putting on Square on a Fuzee; Examination of Mainspring; Stemwind 
Mechanism; Examination of Train; Imitation Gilding; Pivots; Making Bal- 
ance Staff; The Hairspring; Jeweling; Cleaning in General. Price ?5 

Watch and Chronometer Jeweling. By N. B. Sherwood. A com- 
plete treatise on this subject and the only one in print. Contents: Peculiar- 
ties of Gems Used in Making Jewels; Requisite Tools and How to Use Them; 
Shaping and Polishing the Jewel; Opening the Jewel; Setting the Jewel; The 
Endshake Tool; General Hints to the Repairer. Illustrated. Price 35 







If 


- s* 


1 III 




I III 


ijjl 


^rrggSCg 



General Letter Engraving. By G. F. Whelpley, the acknowl- 
edged authority on engraving. His latest and best work. Contents: General 
tints to Beginners; Lines and Curves; Originality; Practice Material; Po- 
sition of Graver; Treatment of Gravers; Correct Spacing; Coffin Plate Engrav- 
ing; Necessary Tools; Laying Out the Work; Prepara- 
tion of Plate: Use of Gravers; Methods of Cutting; 
Slope and Height of Letters; Inclination of Graver; 
Transferring; Letters Appropriate for Long and Short 
Names; Harmony in Laying Out; Touching Up; Diffi- 
cult Materials and their Treatment; Tools aDd Materi- 
ials; Sharpening Gravers; Choice of Tools; Engraving 
in Rings; Gravers for Same; Engraving Blocks and 
Stands; Ciphers, their Formation and Ornamentation: 
Inscriptions; Best Manner of Cutting; Ciphers as Com 
pared with Monograms; Monograms and their Treatment; Figure Monograms 
or Cipheroids; Intertwining; Complex Monograms; General Treatment. 
Copiously illustrated. 113 pages. Paper $1.00. Cloth 125 

The Watchmakers' and Jewelers' Practical Receipt Book. A work- 
shop companion, comprising full and practical formulae and directions for 
solder and soldering, cleaning, pickling, polishing, bronzing, coloring, stain- 
ing, cementing, etching, lacquering, varnishing; general directions for finish- 
ing all metals; hundreds of miscellaneous receipts and piocesses of great 
value to all practical watchmakers and jewelers. This is the only book on the 
market today that gives full and complete directions for etching names, por- 
traits, etc., in the bowls of souvenir spoons and silver articles in general. 
This so-called trade secret is sold by certain persons at $5.00. Dozens of other 
"trade secrets" that are advertised for sale in trade papers at from $1.00 to 
$5.00 can be found in this book. Worth its weight in gold to any practical 
watchmaker and jeweler. 132 pages. Illustrated. Paper covers, $1.00. Fine 
English muslin binding 1 25 

Poising the Balance. An Essay of unusual merit. By J. L. Finn. 

Hairspringing. A complete treatise on the art of hairspringing. 
By A. Z.Price 25 

Adjustments to Positions, Isochronism and Compensation. The 

only work on the sub j ect in print. 50 pages . Illustrated . Price 25 

Prize Essay on the Balance Spring and its Technical Adjustments. 

(Baroness Burdett Coutt's Prize.) By M. Immisch. Illustrated. Cloth. Price 1 00 

Prize Essay on the Detached Lever Escapement. By Moritz 

Grossmann. A practical and theoretical treatise, to which the first prize was 
awarded by adjudicators appointed by the British Horological Institute, Lon- 
don. A book that every watchmaker can read to advantage, and should have 
in his library. 188 pages. Plates bound in a separate volume. The two 
volumes 1 00 

The Acme Watch Guarantee. If you desire to increase your 

watch repair business, purchase an Acme Guarantee Book; and advertise the 
fact that you "give a written guarantee with all work turned out." They are 
bound in heavy, substantial covers, printed on good paper and perforated 
all around, so they can be easily torn out. 

Books of 200 Guarantees - 1 00 

Books of 300 Guarantees 1 25 

Books of 500 Guarantees - tf 00 



Modern Letter Engraving in Theory and Practice. By Fred H. 

Rees. This is the very latest book on the art of engraving letters, monograms 
and nourishes on metal and is acknowledged by all competent judges to be 
the very best exposition of the art. Mr. Rees is an expert in his line, and his 
instructions are so clear and his illustrations so perfectly adapted to the text 
that there can be no misunderstanding, It consists of 176 pages, the finest 
and heaviest paper and about fifty-five plates, with 56 illustrations, Fine 
English cloth binding *■ 50 

Jewelers' Practical Receipt Book. Contains a mass of most 

valuable receipts, formulas and information, gathered from the best and most 
reliable sources. Fifth edition, revised and enlarged. 48 pp. Price 15 

Repairing Watch Cases. A practical treatise on the subject. 

By W. Schwanatus. Contents: Repairing the Pendant; LiniDg Pendant 
Holes; Work at the Joints; Soldering the Bezel; The Closing of the Case; 
Taking Out the Dents. 40 pp. Price 25 

Watch Repairing. N. B. Sherwood. Contents: The Bench and 
Its Accessories; The Vise and Oilstone; Lathe Appliances ; The Jacot Lathe; 
Depthing Tool; Expanding the Web of a Wheel; The Spreading Tool and its 
Use; the Rounding-Up Tool; Stud Remover; Opening the Regulator; Roller 
Remover; Replacing Broken Teeth; Graining Polishing Blocks: Polishing 
Steel Work; Polishing Pivots; Superiority of Conical Pivots: The Cutting 
Engine; To Cut 'Scape Wheels; Replacing Broken Arbors; Hardening and 
Tempering. Illustrated. Price 35 

THe Tower Glosk ana How to Make It. By Eari b, Ferson, in- 

«tructor in macLint JLcm&ii ux ,ne v..acago i'iduual Training 
School. 20 full page detail drawings aud complete elev^iion ; nd 
plan r 14 x 18 inches, folded in. The subject is one in which every 
watchmaker should take the liveliest interest, and one upon which 
he will find it difficult to obtain such information as is here given. 
From it a watchmaker would be enabled to construct clock for his 
own store « — 1 00 

The Watchmakers' Library. This book consists of a collection 

of the best articles from the various trade journals of this country and 
Europe, among the authors being Moritz Grossmann, M. Kessels, Chas. 
Spiro, Chas. R^iss, Her m in Horrman, P. M. Yonlen, M. Sand ;z, Hei 
man Grosch, James U. Poole, E. Sordet and Vincent Lauer. The papers 
are all of a practical nature and of great value to the practical watchmaker, 
the whole forming a volume of 290 pages and index. In Paper Covers 100 

The Roberts' Collection of Antique Watches is the title of a neat 

little brochure, 6x7 inches, bound in an art cover, combined from sea green 
buckram and enameled paper, with gold side stamp. Printed on the finest 
and heaviest quality of enamel book paper. Illustrated with forty-five fine 
half-tone illustrations. Collectors of antique watches and clocks will be ex- 
tremely interested in this volume. Short descriptioDS of each watch are 
printed at the foot of thj page under the illustrations. Among the rare speci- 
mens illustrated are watches that belonged to Oliver Cromwell, James I, 
John Miltoa, George III, Robert Burns, Sir Isaac Newton, Queen Elizabeth, 
John Bunyan, William Prince of Orange and Lady Jane Grey. Many art- 
istic and beautiful cases of odd and complicated mechanisms are shown 50 



Acme Record of Watches Bought and Sold. A complete record 

for dealers in watches, by which they can at all times tell what watches have 
been sold, by whom bought, profit made, etc., and in case of the watch being 
imperfect, the dealer can readily ascertain from whom he purchased it, or if 
stolen he has a full description of them which should materially aid in their 
recovery. Books of 3,000 Entries, substantially bound 1 00 

The Acme Record of Watch Repairs. A simple and economical 

method of recording watch repairs. Book of 1,000 entries, substantially bound 1 00 

The Acme Record of Jewelry Repairs. A simple and economical 

method of recording jewelry and miscellaneous repairs. Book of 1,000 entries, 
substantially bound 1 00 

The Acme Optical Record. A Cash Book, Ledger and Record 
Book in one. In it the optician can keep a full record of each case, showing the 
name of customer, by whom sent, his add ess, history of case, physical ap- 
pearance, vis'oi R. and L. before and after fitting, ophthalmoscopic exam- 
ination, absolute refraction, exophoria, distance and near; esophoria, distance 
and near; hyperphoria, right and left, cyclophoria; prescription R. and L. 
who filled prescription; pupillary distance, he3d space between temples, 
height of nose piece at crest; width of nose piece between curls; crest of 
nose piece forward or back of plane of lenses, size of eye- style of nose piece, 
style of temple, material, cost charge, and when paid. Ruled and printed 
on first class blank book paper, and bound in full cloth. Books of ico pages 125 
Books of 200 pages. 1 50 

Repairing American Watches. By "Detent." An essay on the 

repairing of all kinds of American watches. Written in a practical manner 
by a practical workman. It is a work of unusual merit and deserves to be 
on the bench of every practical workman. In paper cover, 48 pp 25 

The Escapements. Their Action, Construction and Proportion. 
All watch and clock escapements thoroughly illustrated and described. Illus- 
trated with twenty diagrams. Paper Covers Price 50 

Same in cloth binding 75 

The A B C Of Fitting Glasses. A manual for the optician. By 
Edmund T. Allen, M. D., Ph. D. Contents: The Fitting of Glasses; The Rec- 
ord Book; Hypermetropia ; Etiolcgy, History and Diagnosis; Symptoms, 
Objective Signs, Test Type, Pin Hole Test, Ophthalmoscopic Test, Treat- 
ment, Regimen, Prognosis; Correction of Hypermetropia; Myopia; Etiology, 
Diagnosis, Objective Signs, Tests, Treatment, Prognosis; Correction of My- 
opia. Astigmatism; Etiology, Diagnosis, Objective Signs, Tests, Ophthalmo- 
copic Test, Treatment, Prognosis; Correction of Astigmatism. Presbyopia, 
Correction of Presbyopia. Muscular Asthenopia, Etiology, Diagnosis, Objec- 
tive Signs, Hartridge's Test, Treatment. Heteraphoria, Varieties, Causes, 
Anatomy, Tests, Effects, Ocular Reflexes. Higher Prisms an aid in the treat- 
ment of Incurables. Cataract; Classification, Anterior Capsular Cataract, 
Posterior Polar Cataract, Lamellar or Zonular Cataract, Comical Cataract, 
Nuclear Cataract, A Mature Cataract, A Hypermature Cataract, Etiology, 
Diagnosis, Objective Symptoms, Differential Diagnosis. Prognosis, Treat- 
ment, Surgically. Glaucoma; Iridectomy, Cyclotomy, Sclerotomy. In pa- 
percovers, 75 cents. Cloth binding - 100 

Watchmakers' and Machinists' Handbook. Containing a few 

Simple Rules and Explanations on the Relations of Whee^ to Pinions, with 
Methods of Figuring the same. By William B. Learned, late superinten- 
dent of the E. Howard & Co. Watch Factory, Boston, Mass. Contents: 
Sizing of Wheels and Pinions; Definition of Wheel; Pinion; Pitch Circle; 



Fitch Diameter, Full Diameter; Distance of Centers; Line of Centers; Cir- 
cular Pitch; Diametrical Pitch; Addenda; Driver; Driven; Proportion of 
Addenda; Gearing; Epicycloidal Curve; Proportion of Wheel to Pinion; Fig- 
uring Trains; The Eight Leaf Pinion; Dial Train; Problems; Lost Wheel 
and Pinion; Measuring Tools; Vernier Calipers; Parallel Dividers. 

Paper covers - - - - $ 5o 

Cloth binding 1 ?5 

Modern Printing Processes for Amateur Photographers. By 

Henry G. Abbott. Gum-Bichromate and Platinotype Paper. This book 
describes the most advanced methods of working the gum bichromate 
process. The directions are so clearly given that a child of intelligence could 
make prints after reading it. The kind of paper used; the pigment; the gum; 
the sensitizer; the coating; the printing; the development. The printing of 
platinotypes; development by the glycerine process; flesh tones by the use of 
mercury, thus producing two color pictures, is fully described. The methods 

by which masterpieces are made. In heavy paper cover 25 

In cioth binding 35 

Modern Photography in Theory and Practice. A Complete 

Guide to Photography for theAmateur. By Henry G. Abbott. Fifth edi- 
tion now ready. "The King of Photographic Books." This book is thor- 
oughly up-to-date, describes all the various types of Cameras, Action of Light, 
Plates Loading the Holders, Keeping Records, the Exposure, the Develop- 
ment, Fixing, Washing, the Dark Room, its Location and General Plan, 
Developers and Fixing Baths and their uses, Intensification, Reduction, Re- 
touching, Faults in Negatives and the remedies.the various types of Printing 
Papers and how to handle them, the printing, the toning and fixing, Aristo 
papers, and how to handle them, Kirkland's Lithium, Delta Matt, Blue 
Prints, Ferrogallic, Monochrome, Uranium, Bromide, Velox and Platinotype 
Papers and methods of handling, Carbon and Pigment Prints, Freak Photo- 
graphs, Duplicators and their uses, Imitation and Genuine Moonlight Views, 
Lightning and Night Photography, Stereoscopic Pictures with special and 
ordinary Cameras, Cloud Photography, Ray Filters and Color Screens and how 
to make them, Flash Lights, Lantern Slides and Transparencies, Trimming 
and Mounting Prints, Backing Plates, Use of Stops, etc. This work is illus- 
trated superbly by means of eighteen full page half-tones and fifty-five half- 
tone and line etchings and wood cuts. The body of the book is printed on extra 
fine book paper, and the illustrations on enameled book. It consists of 250 

pp. thoroughly indexed. Bound in Sea-green cloth... _.. 1 oc 

In heavy paper covers 75 

The Acme Record and Exposure Book. The Exposure Tables 

are simple, convenient and reliable and the record is compact. Each book 

has blanks for 115 entriesoi Exposures. Bound incloth 25 

The Perfecto Label and Formula Book. This little book is in- 
dispensable to the amateur who wishes to keep his chemicals and solution in 
order and who takes pride in the appearance of his dark room. This book con- 
tains 137 labels printed in bold, black type which can be easily read in the 
dull light of the room. Every label for a solution not only gives the name of 
the solution, but also the amount of each of the ingredients so that it is really 
a book of formulae as well as labels, and the solution can be again made up 
from the label without consulting a book or direction sheet. The book consists 
of 26 pages an i is perforated so that one label can be removed with out disturb- 
ing any of the others. Bound in paper covers 25 



Progressive Lessons iu Photography. A Hand Book for the 

Novice. By Henry G. Abbott. It takes up and fully describes each branch 
of the art, classification of Cameras, Action of Light, Variety of Plates, Com- 
parative Speed of Plates, Exposure, Development, Fixing, Washing, Kinds 
of Printing Paper, Printing, Toning, Mounting, etc. 90 pp ; 30 illustrations; 

size 4V2X 6 in. Heavy paper covers _ 25 

Cloth bound ._ 35 

Improving the Negative. A Hand Book for Amateurs and 

Professionals, By Henry G. Abbott. An extremely useful book on intensifica- 
tion, reduction, and the general manipulation of the negative with a view to 
its improvement. Tells all about fixing baths, acid and plain; washing plates- 
drying; developing stains and how to remove them; fog and how to eliminate; 
paper stains, to remove; mercury stains to remove; intensification withmei- 
cury; Eder's method; Edward's method; Cramer's method; Carbutt's method; 
A. G. F. A. Intensifiers; Uranium intensifiers; Lambert's method; Copper 
intensifiers; redevelopment; reduction with Ammonium Persulphate; Farmer's 
method; Ferric-Chloride method; Ferric-Oxalate method; Iodine method; 
Uranium method, Local Intensification and Reduction. The Dusting Pro- 
cess; Screening in Printing; Use of Opaque; Emery; Local Reduction, etc. 
Art paper covers. 25 

Developing; Its Use and Abuse, a text book for professional 

and advanced amateur photographers. By Henry G. Abbott. 
His latest book. "Worth its weight in gold." 25 

The Polishing and Plating of Metals, a manual for the progres- 
sive electroplater, giving modern method of polishing, plating, 
buffing, oxidizing and lacquering metals. Unlike the average 
book on electroplating, this work has been written from the shop, 
by an experienced plater who has been in touch with the various 
branches of the art in their most modern and progressive develop- 
ments. In consequence the book differs from other works of this 
class in several important particulars; one is that great attention 
is paid to the preparation of work before plating, which, for the 
first time, receives the attention its importance demands, HO 
pages, with 11 illustrations being devoted to this phase of the work ; 
costs, machinery, supplies, the arrangement of the shop furniture, 
steam and water supply, power and various other data being 
treated at great length, as well as the proper buying and storage 
of supplies, so that the five chapters comprising this subject are of 
great financial value to the proprietor, buyer or superintendent of 
a factory having a plating department, as well as to the plater or 
polisher in charge. The construction, design and management of 
dynamos, wiring, measuring instruments and the installation, 
up-keep, and intelligent operation of the electrical system has re- 
ceived the greatest attention, the 15 pages devoted to this subject 
having been submitted in manuscript, to the leading manufact- 
urers of and various experts in the management of such machin- 
ery, for criticism and additions before putting it in type, so that the 
chapters devoted to this subject may be regarded as strictly T up to 
date, accurate in their statements and embodying the latest 
practice. The chapters on plating solutions are minutely written 
and comprise the making, care and use of each solution in a 
thoroughly practical way, being the results of the author's own 
experience and observations in a large number of the best shops 
in America, and on a large variety of different classes of work. 



Oxydizing, lacquering and finishing are also treated at great 
length and clearness, the formulae given being those in present 
use. The book has attracted great attention among the better in 
formed platers of every class on account of the skill and intimate 
knowledge it displays. It is well indexed, profusely illustrated 
and will be of great service to all who are placed, even occasionally, 
in contact with the various phases of the electroplating arts. By 
Herbert J. Hawkins, with numerous illustrations and modern 
formulae. Maroon Cloth, with Gold Back and Side Stamps $2.C~ 

The Watchmaker's Lathe, Its Use and Abuse, a study of the 

lathe in its various forms, past and present. Its construction and 
proper uses. A hand book for the watchmaker and apprentice. 
By Ward L. Goodrich. "I consider this a more important work for 
the watch repairer to-day than anything that has ever been writ- 
ten in any language." Roger T. Graham. It is the first and only 
volume written upon the American watchmaker's lathe and the 
American lathe for the first time is thoroughly analyzed; its de- 
velopment traced and its capabilities pointed out. It shows, in 
clear and simple language, the many uses to which a well-made 
American lathe, its chucks and various attachments may be put 
and the chapters on tools and cutter making will beef inestimable 
value to every watchmaker. 230 illustrations and a complete index. 
Printed on fine paper, bound in full maroon cloth, -with gold side 
and back stamps t 00 

Modem OptiCS. A manual for the student and practitioner. 
By Clifford S. Fi iedman, O. D., late professor of refraction in the 
Northern Illinois College of Ophthalmology and Otology, Chicago. 
This volume treats of accommodation and convergence; pres- 
byopia; decentering spherical lenses; transposition on the cross; 
prescription writing; dissection of lenses ; locating the astigma- 
tism; hyperopia; spasm of accommodation and asthenopia; 
myopia and the chromatic test ; etc., etc. Fully illustrated. Full 
cloth binding with gold side stamp. Paper 75 cents. Cloth 100 

Theoretical and Practical Optics, a manual for the optician, 

covering the entire science from start to finish. By David Ward 
Wood, late professor of optometry in the Northern Illinois College 
of Ophthalmology and Otology, Chicago. The late Prof. Wood 
had a faculty of making knotty pro lems in optics quite clear, 
even to the beginner and this work will be welcomed by the pro- 
fession. It is very fully illustrated and covers the theory of optics ; 
the lenses of the trial case; action of lenses upon light; transpos- 
itions; the anatomy of the eye ; etc., etc. Paper 75 cents. Bound in 
full cloth with gold side stamp .' , „. 1 00 



STAKING TOOLS 

Next in importance to the lathe is a good staking tool, and 
it must be as near perfect as skilled labor and improved 
machinery can make it. Otherwise it is worthless. 



We carry in stock a full line of these tools, running in price 
from $2.40 to $20.00, according to size and number of punches. 

In style, quality of material, finish, accuracy and durability 
they stand unequaled. 

Our stock of watchmakers' tools and materials is complete 
in every detail, including all popular makes of lathes. 



BENJ. ALLEN & CO., 

131-137 Wabash Ave,, - CHICAGO, ILL. 





















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